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Chapter 1 – Stroke Epidemiology

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. Compressed Mortality File 1979-1998. CDC WONDER On-line Database, compiled from Compressed Mortality File CMF 1968-1988, Series 20, No. 2A, 2000 and CMF 1989-1998, Series 20, No. 2E, 2003. Available at: http://wonder.cdc.gov/cmf-icd9.html and http://wonder.cdc.gov/cmf-icd10.html. Accessed March 20, 2008.

2. US Department of Health and Human Services. Ten Great Public Health Achievements – United States, 1900–1999. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, MMWR. 1999;48:241–243.

3. US Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2010, Conference ed., in 2 vols. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, 2000.

4. US Department of Health and Human Services. NCHS Data Warehouse. Table GMWKHI. 2008. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/statab/mortfinal2005_worktable_291R.pdf. Accessed March 20, 2008.

5. Kissela, B, Schneider, A & Kleindorfer, D, et al. Stroke in a biracial population: the excess burden of stroke among blacks. Stroke. 2004;35:426–431. PubMed

6. Kleindorfer, D, Broderick, J & Khoury, J, et al. The unchanging incidence and case-fatality of stroke in the 1990s: a population based study. Stroke. 2006;37:2473–2478. PubMed

7. Casper, ML, Barnett, E, Williams, GI Jr., Halverson, JA, Braham, VE & Greenlund, KJ. Atlas of Stroke Mortality: Racial, Ethnic, and Geographic Disparities in the United States. Atlanta, GA: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, January 2003.

8. Perry, HM & Roccella, EJ. Conference report on stroke mortality in the Southeastern United States. Hypertension. 1998;31:1205–1215.

9. Howard, G. Why do we have a stroke belt in the Southeastern United States? A review of unlikely and uninvestigated potential causes. Am J Med Sci. 1999;317:160–167. PubMed

10. Howard, G, Labarthe, DR, Hu, J, Yoon, S & Howard, VJ. Regional differences in African Americans' high risk for stroke: the remarkable burden of stroke for Southern African Americans. Ann Epidemiol. 2007;17:689–696. PubMed

11. Goldstein, LB, Adams, R & Alberts, MJ, et al. Primary prevention of ischemic stroke. A guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council: Cosponsored by the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease Interdisciplinary Working Group; Cardiovascular Nursing Council; Clinical Cardiology Council; Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism Council; and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Stroke. 2006;37:1583–1633. PubMed

12. Wolf, PA, D'Agostino, RB, Belanger, AJ & Kannel, WB. Probability of stroke: a risk profile from the Framingham Study. Stroke. 1991;22:312–318. PubMed

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14. Ohira, T, Shahar, E, Chambless, LE, Rosamond, WD, Mosley, TH & Folsom, AR. Risk factors for ischemic stroke subtypes: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Stroke. 2006;37:2493–2498. PubMed

15. Howard, G, Prineas, R & Moy, C, et al. Racial and geographic differences in awareness, treatment and control of hypertension: the Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) Study. Stroke. 2006;25:1171–1178.

16. National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2007, Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 2007.

17. Harris, MI, Eastman, RC, Cowie, CC, Flegal, KM & Eberhardt, MS. Racial and ethnic differences in glycemic control of adults with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1999;22:403–408. PubMed

18. Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Study: final results. Circulation. 1991;84:527–539. PubMed

19. SPAF II Writing Committee. Warfarin versus aspirin for prevention of thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation: Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation II Study. Lancet. 1994;343:687–691. PubMed

20. The SPAF III Writing Committee for the Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. Patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation at low risk of stroke during treatment with aspirin: Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation III Study. The SPAF III Writing Committee for the Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. JAMA. 1998;279(16):1273–1277. PubMed

21. Wilson, PWF, Meigs, JB, Sullivan, L, Fox, CS, Nathan, DM & D'Agostino, RB Sr. Prediction of incident diabetes in middle-aged adults. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:1068–1074. PubMed

22. Radi, S, Lang, T & Lauwers-Cancès, V, et al. One-year hypertension incidence and its predictors in a working population: the IHPAF Study. J Hum Hypertens. 2004;18:487–494. PubMed

23. Amarenco, P, Bogousslavsky, J & Callahan, A 3rd, et al. Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction in Cholesterol Levels (SPARCL) Investigators. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:549–559. PubMed

24. Barnett, HJM. Decision-making for carotid endarterectomy. The trials are only the start. Can J Neurol Sci. 2002;29:302–304. PubMed

25. Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the women's health initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002;288:321–333. PubMed

26. Viscoli, CM, Brass, LM, Kernan, WN, Sarrel, PM, Suissa, S & Horwitz, RI. A clinical trial of estrogen-replacement therapy after ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1243–1249. PubMed

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Chapter 2 – Stroke Systems

1. Mullins, RJ & Mann, NC. Population-based research assessing the effectiveness of trauma systems. J Trauma. 1999;47:S59–S66. PubMed

2. Schwamm, LH, Pancioli, A & Acker, JE 3rd, et al. Recommendations for the establishment of stroke systems of care: recommendations from the American Stroke Association's Task Force on the Development of Stroke Systems. Stroke. 2005;36:690–703. PubMed

3. Eyre, H, Kahn, R & Robertson, RM, et al. Preventing cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes: a common agenda for the American Cancer Society, the American Diabetes Association, and the American Heart Association. Stroke. 2004;35:1999–2010. PubMed

4. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2010 Midcourse Review. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, December 2006.

5. Schneider, AT, Pancioli, AM & Khoury, JC, et al. Trends in community knowledge of the warning signs and risk factors for stroke. JAMA. 2003;289:343–346. PubMed

6. Ferris, A, Robertson, RM, Fabunmi, R & Mosca, L. American Heart Association and American Stroke Association national survey of stroke risk awareness among women. Circulation. 2005;111:1321–1326. PubMed

7. Reeves, MJ, Hogan, JG & Rafferty, AP. Knowledge of stroke risk factors and warning signs among Michigan adults. Neurology. 2002;59:1547–1552. PubMed

8. Rowe, AK, Frankel, MR & Sanders, KA. Stroke awareness among Georgia adults: epidemiology and considerations regarding measurement. South Med J. 2001;94:613-618. PubMed

9. Nicol, MB & Thrift, AG. Knowledge of risk factors and warning signs of stroke. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2005;1:137–147. PubMed

10. Alkadry, MG, Wilson, C & Nicholson, D. Stroke awareness among rural residents: the case of West Virginia. Soc Work Health Care. 2005;42:73–92. PubMed

11. Christian, AH, Rosamond, W, White, AR & Mosca, L. Nine-year trends and racial and ethnic disparities in women's awareness of heart disease and stroke: an American Heart Association national study. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2007;16:68–81. PubMed

12. Acker, JE 3rd, Pancioli, AM & Crocco, TJ, et al. Implementation strategies for emergency medical services within stroke systems of care: a policy statement from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Expert Panel on Emergency Medical Services Systems and the Stroke Council. Stroke. 2007;38:3097–3115. PubMed

13. Institute of Medicine. Fact sheet. The future of emergency care: key findings and recommendations. 2006. Available at: http://www.iom.edu/CMS/3809/16107/35007/35040.aspx. Accessed August 6, 2008.

14. Conroy, MB, Rodriguez, SU, Kimmel, SE & Kasner, SE. Helicopter transfer offers a potential benefit to patients with acute stroke. Stroke. 1999;30:2580–2584. PubMed

15. Thomas, SH, Kociszewski, C, Schwamm, LH & Wedel, SK. The evolving role of helicopter emergency medical services in the transfer of stroke patients to specialized centers. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2002;6:210–214. PubMed

16. Silliman, SL, Quinn, B, Huggett, V & Merino, JG. Use of a field-to-stroke center helicopter transport program to extend thrombolytic therapy to rural residents. Stroke. 2003;34:729–733. PubMed

17. Konstantopoulos, WM, Pliakas, J & Hong, C, et al. Helicopter emergency medical services and stroke care regionalization: measuring performance in a maturing system. Am J Emerg Med. 2007;25:158–163. PubMed

18. Diaz, MA, Hendey, GW & Bivins, HG. When is the helicopter faster? A comparison of helicopter and ground ambulance transport times. J Trauma. 2005;58:148–153. PubMed

19. Deng, YZ, Reeves, MJ & Jacobs, BS, et al. IV tissue plasminogen activator use in acute stroke: experience from a statewide registry. Neurology. 2006;66:306–312. PubMed

20. Katzan, IL, Furlan, AJ & Lloyd, LE, et al. Use of tissue-type plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke: the Cleveland area experience. JAMA. 2000;283:1151–1158. PubMed

21. Qureshi, AI, Suri, MF & Nasar, A, et al. Thrombolysis for ischemic stroke in the United States: data from National Hospital Discharge Survey 1999-2001. Neurosurgery. 2005;57:647–654; discussion 647–654. PubMed

22. Reeves, MJ, Arora, S & Broderick, JP, et al. Acute stroke care in the US: results from 4 pilot prototypes of the Paul Coverdell National Acute Stroke Registry. Stroke. 2005;36:1232–1240. PubMed

23. Barber, PA, Zhang, J, Demchuk, AM, Hill, MD & Buchan, AM. Why are stroke patients excluded from TPA therapy? An analysis of patient eligibility. Neurology. 2001;56:1015–1020. PubMed

24. Alberts, MJ. tPA in acute ischemic stroke: United States experience and issues for the future. Neurology. 1998;51:S53–S55. PubMed

25. Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1581–1587. PubMed

26. Grotta, JC, Burgin, WS & El-Mitwalli, A, et al. Intravenous tissue-type plasminogen activator therapy for ischemic stroke: Houston experience 1996 to 2000. Arch Neurol. 2001;58:2009–2013. PubMed

27. Douglas, VC, Tong, DC & Gillum, LA, et al. Do the Brain Attack Coalition's criteria for stroke centers improve care for ischemic stroke? Neurology. 2005;64:422–427. PubMed

28. National Institutes of Health Clinical Center. NIH Clinical Research Studies. Protocol number: 04-N-0264. http://clinicalstudies.info.nih.gov/index.html, 2008.

29. Khatri, P, Hill, MD & Palesch, YY, et al. Methodology of the Interventional Management of Stroke III Trial. Int J Stroke. 2008;3:130–137. PubMed

30. Collaborative systematic review of the randomised trials of organised inpatient (stroke unit) care after stroke. Stroke Unit Trialists' Collaboration. BMJ. 1997;314:1151–1159. PubMed

31. Alberts, MJ, Hademenos, G & Latchaw, RE, et al. Recommendations for the establishment of primary stroke centers. Brain Attack Coalition. JAMA. 2000;283:3102–3109. PubMed

32. Wentworth, DA & Atkinson, RP. Implementation of an acute stroke program decreases hospitalization costs and length of stay. Stroke. 1996;27:1040–1043. PubMed

33. Rodin, M, Saliba, D & Brummel-Smith, K. Guidelines abstracted from the Department of Veterans Affairs/Department of Defense clinical practice guideline for the management of stroke rehabilitation. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2006;54:158–162. PubMed

34. Wattigney, WA, Croft, JB & Mensah, GA, et al. Establishing data elements for the Paul Coverdell National Acute Stroke Registry: part 1: proceedings of an expert panel. Stroke. 2003;34:151–156. PubMed

35. Labarthe, DR, Biggers, A, LaPier, T & George, MG. The Paul Coverdell National Acute Stroke Registry (PCNASR): a public health initiative. Am J Prev Med. 2006;31:S192–S195. PubMed

36. Smaha, LA. The American Heart Association Get With The Guidelines program. Am Heart J. 2004;148:S46–S48. PubMed

37. LaBresh, KA, Reeves, MJ, Frankel, MR, Albright, D & Schwamm, LH. Hospital treatment of patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack using the "Get With The Guidelines" program. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:411–417. PubMed

38. The Joint Commission. Performance Measurement and Improvement for Disease-Specific Care Certification Programs. http://www.jointcommission.org/certificationprograms/disease-specificcare/DCSPM.

39. The Joint Commission. Standardized stroke measure set (harmonized measures). 2008. Available at: http://www.jointcommission.org/CertificationPrograms/PrimaryStrokeCenters/standardized_stroke_measure_set.htm. Accessed August 6, 2008.

40. Gropen, TI, Gagliano, PJ & Blake, CA, et al. Quality improvement in acute stroke: the New York State Stroke Center Designation Project. Neurology. 2006;67:88–93. PubMed

41. Division of Health Care Quality. Designated primary stroke services hospitals. 2008. Available at: http://www.mass.gov. Accessed July 30, 2008.

42. COMAR – Office of the Secretary of State Division of State Documents. Code of Maryland Regulations. 2007. Available at: http://www.dsd.state.md.us/comar/. Accessed August 2, 2008.

43. Florida Legislature. The 2008 Florida Statutes. 2008. Available at: http://www.leg.state.fl.us/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&Search_String=&URL=Ch0395/PART01.HTM. Accessed August 2, 2008.

44. http://www.mass.gov. Amendments to the Hospital Licensure Regulations: Primary Stroke Service Licensure Regulations. 2008. Available at: http://www.mass.gov/Eeohhs2/docs/dph/regs/105cmr103_stroke_amend.pdf. Accessed August 2, 2008.

45. GovTrack.us. H.R. 477 Stroke Treatment and Ongoing Prevention Act of 2008. 2008. Available at: http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=s110-999. Accessed August 6, 2008.

46. American Heart Association. Update on the STOP Stroke Act. 2008. Available at: http://www.capitolconnect.com/yourethecure/takeaction.aspx. Accessed August 6, 2008.

47. King County. Public Health – Seattle & King County. 2007. Available at the King County Medic One website.

48. Birmingham Emergency Medical Services System. BREMSS. 2000–2008. Available at: http://www.bremss.org.

49. REACH Call, Inc. REACH Call. 2003–2008. Available at: http://www.reachcall.com.

50. Switzer, JA, Hall, C & Gross, H, et al. A web-based telestroke system facilitates rapid treatment of acute ischemic stroke patients in rural emergency departments. J Emerg Med. 2008. E pub ahead of publication. PubMed

51. Schwamm, LH, Rosenthal, ES & Hirshberg, A, et al. Virtual TeleStroke support for the emergency department evaluation of acute stroke. Acad Emerg Med. 2004;11:1193–1197. PubMed

52. Ellrodt, G, Glasener, R & Cadorette, B, et al. Multidisciplinary rounds (MDR): an implementation system for sustained improvement in the American Heart Association's Get With The Guidelines program. Crit Pathw Cardiol. 2007;6:106–116. PubMed

Chapter 3 – Primordial and Primary Prevention of Stroke

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2. Pearson, TA, Bazzarre, TL & Daniels, SR, et al.; American Heart Association Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science. American Heart Association guide for improving cardiovascular health at the community level: a statement for public health practitioners, healthcare providers, and health policy makers from the American Heart Association Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science. Circulation. 2003;107(4):645–651. PubMed

3. Wolf, PA, D'Agostino, RB, Belanger, AJ & Kannel, WB. Probability of stroke: a risk profile from the Framingham Study. Stroke. 1991;22:312–318. PubMed

4. Goldstein, LB, Adams, R & Alberts, MJ, et al.; American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council; Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease Interdisciplinary Working Group; Cardiovascular Nursing Council; Clinical Cardiology Council; Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism Council; Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group; American Academy of Neurology. Primary prevention of ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council: cosponsored by the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease Interdisciplinary Working Group; Cardiovascular Nursing Council; Clinical Cardiology Council; Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism Council; and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline. Stroke. 2006;37(6):1583–1633 (Epub May 4, 2006). Erratum in: Stroke. 2007;38(1):207. PubMed

5. Wolf, PA, D'Agostino, RB & O'Neal, MA, et al. Secular trends in stroke incidence and mortality: the Framingham Study. Stroke. 1992;23:1551–1555. PubMed

6. Sacco, RL, Boden-Albala, B & Gan, R, et al. Stroke incidence among white, black, and Hispanic residents of an urban community: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1998;147(3):259–268. PubMed

7. Broderick, J, Brott, T & Kothari, R, et al. The Greater Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky Stroke Study: preliminary first-ever and total incidence rates of stroke among blacks. Stroke. 1998;29:415–421. PubMed

8. Lackland, DT, Egan, BM & Ferguson, PL. Low birth weight as a risk factor for hypertension. J Clin Hypertens. 2003;5:133–136.

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11. Rolfs, A, Böttcher, T & Zschiesche, M, et al. Prevalence of Fabry disease in patients with cryptogenic stroke: a prospective study. Lancet. 2005;366(9499):1794–1796. Erratum in: Lancet. 2006;368(9554):2210. PubMed

12. Gretarsdottir, S, Thorleifsson, G & Reynisdottir, ST, et al. The gene encoding phosphodiesterase 4D confers risk of ischemic stroke. Nat Genet. 2003;35:131–138. Erratum in: Nat Genet. 2005;37:555. PubMed

13. Fields, LE, Burt, VL, Cutler, JA, Hughes, J, Roccella, EJ & Sorlie, P. The burden of adult hypertension in the United States 1999 to 2000: a rising tide. Hypertension. 2004;44:398–404. PubMed

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24. Thun, MJ, Apicella, LF & Henley, SJ. Smoking vs other risk factors as the cause of smoking-attributable deaths: confounding in the courtroom. JAMA. 2000;284:706–712. PubMed

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26. Burns, DM. Epidemiology of smoking-induced cardiovascular disease. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2003;46:11–29. PubMed

27. Robbins, AS, Manson, JE, Lee, IM, Satterfield, S & Hennekens, CH. Cigarette smoking and stroke in a cohort of US male physicians. Ann Intern Med. 1994;120:458–462. PubMed

28. Zhang, X, Patel, A & Horibe, H, et al.; Asia Pacific Cohort Studies Collaboration. Cholesterol, coronary heart disease, and stroke in the Asia Pacific region. Int J Epidemiol. 2003;32:563–572. PubMed

29. Wannamethee, SG, Shaper, AG & Ebrahim, S. HDL-cholesterol, total cholesterol, and the risk of stroke in middle-aged British men. Stroke. 2000;31:1882–1888. PubMed

30. Collins, R, Armitage, J, Parish, S, Sleight, P & Peto, R; Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. Effects of cholesterol-lowering with simvastatin on stroke and other major vascular events in 20536 people with cerebrovascular disease or other high-risk conditions. Lancet. 2004;363:757–767. PubMed

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47. Adams, R, McKie, V & Nichols, F, et al. The use of transcranial ultrasonography to predict stroke in sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:605–610. PubMed

48. Adams, RJ, McKie, VC & Carl, EM, et al. Long-term stroke risk in children with sickle cell disease screened with transcranial Doppler. Ann Neurol. 1997;42:699–704. PubMed

49. Adams, RJ, McKie, VC & Hsu, L, et al. Prevention of a first stroke by transfusions in children with sickle cell anemia and abnormal results on transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:5–11. PubMed

50. Adams, RJ & Brambilla, D, Optimizing Primary Stroke Prevention In Sickle Cell Anemia (STOP 2) Trial Investigators. Discontinuing prophylactic transfusions used to prevent stroke in sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(26):2769–2778. PubMed

51. Viscoli, CM, Brass, LM, Kernan, WN, Sarrel, PM, Suissa, S & Horwitz, RI. A clinical trial of estrogen-replacement therapy after ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1243–1249. PubMed

52. Simon, JA, Hsia, J & Cauley, JA, et al. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and risk of stroke: the Heart and Estrogen-progestin Replacement Study (HERS). Circulation. 2001;103:638–642. PubMed

53. Anderson, GL, Limacher, M & Assaf, AR, et al.; Women's Health Initiative Steering Committee. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291(14):1701–1712. PubMed

54. Joshipura, KJ, Ascherio, A & Manson, JE, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake in relation to risk of ischemic stroke. JAMA. 1999;282:1233–1239. PubMed

55. Sacks, FM, Svetkey, LP & Vollmer, WM, et al.; DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:3–10. PubMed

56. Whelton, PK, He, J & Cutler, JA, et al. Effects of oral potassium on blood pressure. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. JAMA. 1997;277:1624–1632. PubMed

57. Kiely, DK, Wolf, PA, Cupples, LA, Beiser, AS & Kannel, WB. Physical activity and stroke risk: the Framingham Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1994;140:608–620. Erratum in: Am J Epidemiol. 1995;141:178. PubMed

58. Gillum, RF, Mussolino, ME & Ingram, DD. Physical activity and stroke incidence in women and men. The NHANES I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1996;143:860–869. PubMed

59. Sacco, RL, Gan, R & Boden-Albala, B, et al. Leisure-time physical activity and ischemic stroke risk: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Stroke. 1998;29:380–387. PubMed

60. NIH develops consensus statement on the role of physical activity for cardiovascular health. Am Fam Physician. 1996;54:763–764, 767. PubMed

61. Rexrode, KM, Hennekens, CH & Willett, WC, et al. A prospective study of body mass index, weight change, and risk of stroke in women. JAMA. 1997;277:1539–1545. PubMed

62. Kurth, T, Gaziano, JM & Berger, K, et al. Body mass index and the risk of stroke in men. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162:2557–2562. PubMed

63. Lakka, HM, Laaksonen, DE & Lakka, TA, et al. The metabolic syndrome and total and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged men. JAMA. 2002;288:2709–2716. PubMed

64. Kernan, WN, Inzucchi, SE, Viscoli, CM, Brass, LM, Bravata, DM & Horwitz, RI. Insulin resistance and risk for stroke. Neurology. 2002;59:809–815. PubMed

65. Gill, JS, Zezulka, AV, Shipley, MJ, Gill, SK & Beevers, DG. Stroke and alcohol consumption. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:1041–1046. PubMed

66. Sacco, RL, Elkind, M & Boden-Albala, B, et al. The protective effect of moderate alcohol consumption on ischemic stroke. JAMA. 1999;281:53–60. PubMed

67. Brust, JCM. Neurological Aspects of Substance Abuse, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2004.

68. Kaufman, MJ, Levin, JM & Ross, MH, et al. Cocaine-induced cerebral vasoconstriction detected in humans with magnetic resonance angiography. JAMA. 1998;279:376–380. PubMed

69. Heinemann, LA, Lewis, MA, Thorogood, M, Spitzer, WO, Guggenmoos-Holzmann, I & Bruppacher, R. Case-control study of oral contraceptives and risk of thromboembolic stroke: results from International Study on Oral Contraceptives and Health of Young Women. BMJ. 1997;315:1502–1504. PubMed

70. Gillum, LA, Mamidipudi, SK & Johnston, SC. Ischemic stroke risk with oral contraceptives: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2000;284:72–78. PubMed

71. Siritho, S, Thrift, AG, McNeil, JJ, You, RX, Davis, SM & Donnan, GA; Melbourne Risk Factor Study (MERFS) Group. Risk of ischemic stroke among users of the oral contraceptive pill: the Melbourne Risk Factor Study (MERFS) Group. Stroke. 2003;34:1575–1580. PubMed

72. Davies, DP, Rodgers, H, Walshaw, D, James, OF & Gibson, GJ. Snoring, daytime sleepiness and stroke: a case-control study of first-ever stroke. J Sleep Res. 2003;12:313–318. PubMed

73. Marín, JM, Carrizo, SJ, Vicente, E & Agusti, AG. Long-term cardiovascular outcomes in men with obstructive sleep apnoea-hypopnoea with or without treatment with continuous positive airway pressure: an observational study. Lancet. 2005;365:1046–1053. PubMed

74. Hermann, DM & Bassetti, CL. Sleep-disordered breathing and stroke. Curr Opin Neurol. 2003;16:87–90. PubMed

75. Lavie, P, Herer, P & Hoffstein, V. Obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome as a risk factor for hypertension: population study. BMJ. 2000;320:479–482. PubMed

76. Schwaag, S, Nabavi, DG, Frese, A, Husstedt, IW & Evers, S. The association between migraine and juvenile stroke: a case-control study. Headache. 2003;43:90–95. PubMed

77. Kruit, MC, van Buchem, MA & Hofman, PA, et al. Migraine as a risk factor for subclinical brain lesions. JAMA. 2004;291:427–434. PubMed

78. Bednarczyk, EM, Remler, B, Weikart, C, Nelson, AD & Reed, RC. Global cerebral blood flow, blood volume, and oxygen metabolism in patients with migraine headache. Neurology. 1998;50:1736–1740. PubMed

79. Overell, JR, Bone, I & Lees, KR. Interatrial septal abnormalities and stroke: a meta-analysis of case-control studies. Neurology. 2000;55:1172–1179. PubMed

80. Anzola, GP, Magoni, M, Guindani, M, Rozzini, L & Dalla Volta, G. Potential source of cerebral embolism in migraine with aura: a transcranial Doppler study. Neurology. 1999;52:1622–1625. PubMed

81. Giles, WH, Croft, JB, Greenlund, KJ, Ford, ES & Kittner, SJ. Total homocyst(e)ine concentration and the likelihood of nonfatal stroke: results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994. Stroke. 1998;29:2473–2477. PubMed

82. Welch, GN & Loscalzo, J. Homocysteine and atherothrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:1042–1050. PubMed

83. Wald, DS, Law, M & Morris, JK. Homocysteine and cardiovascular disease: evidence on causality from a meta-analysis. BMJ. 2002;325:1202. PubMed

84. Toole, JF, Malinow, MR & Chambless, LE, et al. Lowering homocysteine in patients with ischemic stroke to prevent recurrent stroke, myocardial infarction, and death: the Vitamin Intervention for Stroke Prevention (VISP) randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291:565–575. PubMed

85. Danesh, J, Collins, R & Peto, R. Lipoprotein(a) and coronary heart disease. Meta-analysis of prospective studies. Circulation. 2000;102:1082–1085. PubMed

86. Guyton, JR, Goldberg, AC, Kreisberg, RA, Sprecher, DL, Superko, HR & O'Connor, CM. Effectiveness of once-nightly dosing of extended-release niacin alone and in combination for hypercholesterolemia. Am J Cardiol. 1998;82:737–743. PubMed

87. Ballantyne, CM, Hoogeveen, RC & Bang, H, et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, and risk for incident coronary heart disease in middle-aged men and women in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Circulation. 2004;109:837–842. PubMed

88. Koenig, W, Khuseyinova, N, Lowel, H, Trischler, G & Meisinger, C. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 adds to risk prediction of incident coronary events by C-reactive protein in apparently healthy middle-aged men from the general population: results from the 14-year follow-up of a large cohort from southern Germany. Circulation. 2004;110:1903–1908. PubMed

89. Levine, SR, Brey, RL & Tilley, BC, et al.; APASS Investigators. Antiphospholipid antibodies and subsequent thrombo-occlusive events in patients with ischemic stroke. JAMA. 2004;291:576–584. PubMed

90. Brey, RL, Abbott, RD & Curb, JD, et al. Beta(2)-glycoprotein 1–dependent anticardiolipin antibodies and risk of ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction: the Honolulu Heart Program. Stroke. 2001;32:1701–1706. PubMed

91. Folsom, AR, Aleksic, N, Catellier, D, Juneja, HS & Wu, KK. C-reactive protein and incident coronary heart disease in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Am Heart J. 2002;144:233–238. PubMed

92. Ridker, PM, Rifai, N, Rose, L, Buring, JE & Cook, NR. Comparison of C-reactive protein and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the prediction of first cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1557–1565. PubMed

93. Ridker, PM, Cannon, CP & Morrow, D, et al.; Pravastatin or Atorvastatin Evaluation and Infection Therapy-Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 22 (PROVE IT-TIMI 22) Investigators. C-reactive protein levels and outcomes after statin therapy. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:20–28. PubMed

94. Bevilacqua, MP, Pober, JS, Majeau, GR, Cotran, RS & Gimbrone, MA Jr. Interleukin 1 (IL-1) induces biosynthesis and cell surface expression of procoagulant activity in human vascular endothelial cells. J Exp Med. 1984;160:618–623. PubMed

95. Schonbeck, U, Varo, N, Libby, P, Buring, J & Ridker, PM. Soluble CD40L and cardiovascular risk in women. Circulation. 2001;104:2266–2268. PubMed

96. Elkind, MS, Lin, IF, Grayston, JT & Sacco, RL. Chlamydia pneumoniae and the risk of first ischemic stroke: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Stroke. 2000;31:1521–1525. PubMed

97. Espinola-Klein, C, Rupprecht, HJ & Blankenberg, S, et al. Impact of infectious burden on progression of carotid atherosclerosis. Stroke. 2002;33:2581–2586. PubMed

98. Hayden, M, Pignone, M, Phillips, C & Mulrow, C. Aspirin for the primary prevention of cardiovascular events: a summary of the evidence for the US Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2002;136:161–172. PubMed

•  Ridker, PM, Cook, NR & Lee, IM, et al. A randomized trial of low-dose aspirin in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in women. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1293–1304. PubMed

Chapter 4 – Cardiac Rehabilitation and Secondary Prevention Programs

1. Thom, T, Haase, N & Rosamond, W, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics – 2006 Update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation. 2006;113:e85–e151. PubMed

2. Acker, J, Pancioli, A & Crocco, T, et al. Implementation strategies for emergency medical services within stroke systems of care: a policy statement from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Expert Panel on Emergency Medical Services Systems and the Stroke Council. Stroke. 2007;38:3097. PubMed

3. Adams, HP, del Zoppo, G & Alberts, MJ, et al. Guidelines for the early management of adults with ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council, Clinical Cardiology Council, Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention Council, and the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease and Quality of Care Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Groups: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline as an educational tool for neurologists. Stroke. 2007;38:1655–1711. PubMed

4. Kothari, R, Sauerbeck, L & Jauch, E. Patients' awareness of stroke signs, symptoms, and risk factors. Stroke. 1997;28:1871–1875. PubMed

5. Pancioli, AM, Broderick, J & Kothari, R, et al. Public perception of stroke warning signs and knowledge of potential risk factors. JAMA. 1998;279:1288–1292. PubMed

6. Schneider, AT, Pancioli, AM & Khoury, JC, et al. Trends in community knowledge of the warning signs and risk factors for stroke. JAMA. 2003;289:343–346. PubMed

7. Moser, DK, Kimble, LP & Alberts, MJ, et al. Reducing delay in seeking treatment by patients with acute coronary syndrome and stroke. A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Nursing and Stroke Council. Circulation. 2006;114:168–182. PubMed

8. Kothari, R, Jauch, E & Broderick, J, et al. Acute stroke: delays to presentation and emergency department evaluation. Ann Emerg Med. 1999;33:3–8. PubMed

9. Californita Acute Stroke Pilot Registry (CASPR) Investigators. Prioritzing interventions to improve rates of thrombolysis for ischemic stroke. Neurology. 2005;64:654–659. PubMed

10. Rymer, MM & Thrutchley, DE. Stroke Team at the Mid America Brain and Stroke Institute. Organizing regional networks to increase acute stroke intervention. Neurol Res. 2005;27:s9–s16. PubMed

11. Adams, RE, Acker, J & Alberts, M, et al. Advisory Working Group on Stroke Center Identificaion Options of the American Stroke Association. Recommendations for improving the quality of care through stroke centers and systems: an examination of stroke center identification options: multidisciplinary consensus recommendations from the Advisory Working Group on Stroke Center Identification Options of the American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2002;33:1–7. PubMed

12. Kennedy, J & Buchan, AM. Acute neurovascular syndromes: hurry up, please, it's time! Stroke. 2004;35:360–362. PubMed

13. Alberts, MJ, Hademenos, G & Latchaw, RE, et al. Recommendations for the establishment of primary stroke centers. JAMA. 2001;283:3102–3109.

14. Kidwell, CS, Shephard, T & Tonn, S, et al. Establishment of primary stroke centers. A survey of physician attitudes and hospital resources. Neurology. 2003;60:1452–1456. PubMed

15. Alberts, MJ, Latchaw, RE & Selman, WR, et al., for the Brain Attack Coalition. Recommendations for comprehensive stroke centers: a consensus statement from the Brain Attack Coalition. Stroke. 2005;36:1597–1616. PubMed

16. Sacco, RL, Adams, R & Albers, G, et al. Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Council on Stroke: co-sponsored by the Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline. Stroke. 2006;37:577–617. PubMed

17. Stroke Unit Trialists' Collaboration. How do stroke units improve patient outcomes? A collaborative systematic review of the randomized trials. Stroke. 1997;28:2139–2144. PubMed

18. Stroke Unit Trialists' Collaboration. Organised inpatient (stroke unit) care for stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;CD0001972002.

19. Ronning, OM & Guldvog, B. Stroke units versus general medical wards, I: twelve- and eighteen-month survival: a randomized, controlled trial. Stroke. 1998;29:58–62. PubMed

20. Gilligan, AK, Thrift, AG, Sturm, JW, Dewey, HM, Maconell, RAL & Donnan, GA. Stroke units, tissue plasminogen activator, aspirin and neuroprotection: which stroke intervention could provide the greatest community benefit? Cerebrovasc Dis. 2005;20:239–244. PubMed

21. Weir, CJ, Murray, GD, Adams, FG, Muir, KW, Grosset, DG & Lees, KR. Poor accuracy of stroke scoring systems for differential clinical diagnosis of intracranial haemorrhage and infarction. Lancet. 1994;344:999–1002. PubMed

22. Besson, G, Robert, C, Hommel, M & Perret, J. Is it clinically possible to distinguish nonhemorrhagic infarct from hemorrhagic stroke? Stroke. 1995;26:1205–1209. PubMed

23. Jorgensen, HS, Jespersen, HF, Nakayama, H, Raaschou, HO & Olsen, TS. Headache in stroke: the Copenhagen Stroke Study. Neurology. 1994;44:1793–1797. PubMed

24. Fisher, CM. The headache and pain of spontaneous carotid dissection. Headache. 1982;22:60–65. PubMed

25. Parvizi, J & Damasio, AR. Neuroanatomical correlates of brainstem coma. Brain. 2003;126:1524–1536. PubMed

26. Brott, T, Adams, HP Jr & Olinger, CP, et al. Measurements of acute cerebral infarction: a clinical examination scale. Stroke. 1989;20:864–870. PubMed

27. Brott, T, Marler, JR & Olinger, CP, et al. Measurements of acute cerebral infarction: lesion size by computed tomography. Stroke. 1989;20:871–875. PubMed

28. Lewandowski, CA, Frankel, M & Tomsick, TA, et al.; EMS Bridging Trial Investigators. Combined intravenous and intra-arterial r-TPA versus intra-arterial therapy of acute ischemic stroke: emergency management of stroke (EMS) trial. Stroke. 1999;30:2598–2605. PubMed

29. Adams, HP Jr, Davis, PH & Leira, EC, et al. Baseline NIH Stroke Scale score strongly predicts outcome after stroke. Neurology. 1999;53:126–131. PubMed

30. Kidwell, C, Villablanca, P & Saver, JL. Advances in neuroimaging of acute stroke. Curr Opin Cardiol. 2000;2:126–135.

31. Marler, JR, Jones, PW & Emr, M. Proceedings of a National Symposium on Rapid Identification and Treatment of Acute Stroke. NINDS, 1997, NIH publication no. 97-4239.

32. Ruff, RL & Dougherty, JH Jr. Evaluation of acute cerebral ischemia for anticoagulant therapy: computed tomography or lumbar puncture. Neurology. 1981;31:736–740. PubMed

33. Adams, HP Jr, Kassell, NF & Torner, JC. CT and clinical correlations in recent aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a preliminary report of the Cooperative Aneurysm Study. Neurology. 1983;33:981–988. PubMed

34. Schriger, DL, Kalafut, M, Starkman, S, Krueger, M & Saver, JL. Cranial computed tomography interpretation in acute stroke: physician accuracy in determining eligibility for thrombolytic therapy. JAMA. 1998;279:1293–1297. PubMed

35. Wardlaw, JM, Dorman, PJ, Lewis, SC & Sandercock, PA. Can stroke physicians and neuroradiologists identify signs of early cerebral infarction on CT? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999;67:651–653. PubMed

36. Kalafut, MA, Schriger, DL, Saver, JL & Starkman, S. Detection of early CT signs of >1/3 middle cerebral artery infarctions: interrater reliability and sensitivity of CT interpretation by physicians involved in acute stroke care. Stroke. 2000;31:1667–1671. PubMed

37. Patel, SC, Levine, SR & Tiley, BC. Early ischemic changes on computed tomography in patients with acute stroke. JAMA. 2002;287:2361–2362. PubMed

38. Butcher, KS, Lee, SB & Parsons, MW, et al., for the EPHITET Investigators. Differential prognosis isolated cortical swelling and hypoattenuation on CT in acute stroke. Stroke. 2007;38:941–947. PubMed

39. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group. Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1581–1587. PubMed

40. Wintermark, M, Flanders, AE & Velthuis, B, et al. Perfusion-CT assessment of infarct core and penumbra: receiver operating characteristic curve analysis in 130 patients suspected of acute hemispheric stroke. Stroke. 2006;37:979–985. PubMed

41. Verro, P, Tanenbaum, LN, Borden, NM, Sen, S & Eshkar, N. CT angiography in acute ischemic stroke: preliminary results. Stroke. 2002;33:276–278. PubMed

42. Muir, KW, Baird-Gunning, J, Walker, L, Baird, T, McCormick, M & Coutts, SB. Can the ischemic penumbra be identified on noncontrast CT of acute stroke? Stroke. 2007;38:2485–2490. PubMed

43. Wildermuth, S, Knauth, M, Brandt, T, Winter, R, Sartor, K & Hacke, W. Role of CT angiography in patient selection for thrombolytic therapy in acute hemispheric stroke. Stroke. 1998;29:935–938. PubMed

44. Warach, S, Gaa, J, Siewert, B, Wielopolski, P & Edelman, RR. Acute human stroke studied by whole brain echo planar diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. Ann Neurol. 1995;37:231–241. PubMed

45. Barber, PA, Hill, MD & Eliasziw, M, et al., for the ASPEC Study Group. Imaging of the brain in acute ischaemic stroke: comparison of computed tomography and magnetic resonance diffusion-weighted imaging. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76:1528–1533. PubMed

46. Qureshi, AI, Isa, A & Cinnamon, J, et al. Magnetic resonance angiography in patients with brain infarction. J Neuroimaging. 1998;8:65–70. PubMed

47. Sulter, G, Elting, JW, Stewart, R, den Arend, A & De Keyser, J. Continuous pulse oximetry in acute hemiparetic stroke. J Neurol Sci. 2000;179:65–69. PubMed

48. Hacke, W, Krieger, D & Hirschberg, M. General principles in the treatment of acute ischemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis. 1991;1(Suppl. 1):93–99.

49. Milhaud, D, Popp, J, Thouvenot, E, Heroum, C & Bonafé, A. Mechanical ventilation in ischemic stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2004;13:183–188. PubMed

50. Grotta, J, Pasteur, W, Khwaja, G, Hamel, T, Fisher, M & Ramirez, A. Elective intubation for neurologic deterioration after stroke. Neurology. 1995;45:640–644. PubMed

51. Bushnell, CD, Phillips-Bute, BG, Laskowitz, DT, Lynch, JR, Chilukuri, V & Borel, CO. Survival and outcome after endotracheal intubation for acute stroke. Neurology. 1999;52:1374–1381. PubMed

52. Ronning, OM & Guldvog, B. Should stroke victims routinely receive supplemental oxygen? A quasi-randomized controlled trial. Stroke. 1999;30:2033–2037. PubMed

53. Azzimondi, G, Bassein, L & Nonino, F, et al. Fever in acute stroke worsens prognosis. Stroke. 1995;26:2040–2043. PubMed

54. Castillo, J, Davalos, A & Noya, M. Aggravation of acute ischemic stroke by hyperthermia is related to an excitotoxic mechanism. Cerebrovasc Dis. 1999;9:22–27. PubMed

55. Sulter, G, Elting, JW, Maurits, N, Luyckx, GJ & De Keyser, J. Acetylsalicylic acid and acetaminophen to combat elevated body temperature in acute ischemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2004;17:118–122. PubMed

56. Dippel, DW, van Breda, EJ & Van der Worp, HB, et al.; PISA Investigators. Effect of paracetamol (acetaminophen) and ibuprofen on body temperature in acute ischemic stroke PISA, a phase II double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2003;3:2. PubMed

57. Hammer, MD & Krieger, DW. Hypothermia for acute ischemic stroke: not just another neuroprotectant. Neurologist. 2003;9:280–289. PubMed

58. Schwab, S, Schwarz, S, Spranger, M, Keller, E, Bertram, M & Hacke, W. Moderate hypothermia in the treatment of patients with severe middle cerebral artery infarction. Stroke. 1998;29:2461–2466. PubMed

59. Georgiadis, D & Schwab, S. Hypothermia in acute stroke. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2005;7:119–127. PubMed

60. Wang, H, Olivero, W & Lanzino, G, et al. Rapid and selective cerebral hypothermia achieved using a cooling helmet. J Neurol. 2004;100:272–277.

61. Slotboom, J, Kiefer, C & Brekenfeld, C, et al. Locally induced hypothermia for treatment of acute ischaemic stroke: a physical feasibility study. Neuroradiology. 2004;46:923–934. PubMed

62. Milhaud, D, Thouvenot, E, Hernoum, C & Escuret, E. Prolonged moderate hypothermia in massive hemispheric infarction: clinical experience. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2005;17:49–53. PubMed

63. Korpelainen, JT, Sotaniemi, KA, Makikallio, A, Huikuri, HV & Myllyla, VV. Dynamic behavior of heart rate in ischemic stroke. Stroke. 1999;30:1008–1013. PubMed

64. Britton, M, de Faire, U, Helmers, C, Miah, K, Ryding, C & Wester, PO. Arrhythmias in patients with acute cerebrovascular disease. Acta Med Scand. 1979;205:425–428. PubMed

65. Castillo, J, Leira, R, García, MM, Serena, J, Blanco, M & Dávalos, A. Blood pressure decrease during the acute phase of ischemic stroke is associated with brain injury and poor stroke outcome. Stroke. 2004;35:520–527. PubMed

66. Vemmos, K, Tsivgoulis, G & Spengos, K, et al. U-shaped relationship between mortality and admission blood pressure in patients with acute stroke. J Intern Med. 2004;255:257–265. PubMed

67. Aslanyan, S, Weir, CJ & Lees, KR; GAIN International Steering Committee and Investigators. Elevated pulse pressure during the acute period of ischemic stroke is associated with poor stroke outcome. Stroke. 2004;35:e153–e155. PubMed

68. Vemmos, K, Spengos, K & Tsivgoulis, G, et al. Factors influencing acute blood pressure values in stroke subtypes. J Hum Hypertens. 2004;18:253–259. PubMed

69. Oliveira-Filho, J, Silva, SCS, Trabuco, CC, Pedreira, BB, Sousa, EU & Bacellar, A. Detrimental effect of blood pressure reduction in the first 24 hours of acute stroke onset. Neurology. 2003;61:1047–1051. PubMed

70. Goldstein, LB. Blood pressure management in patients with acute ischemic stroke. Hypertension. 2004;43:137–141. PubMed

71. Williams, LS, Rotich, J & Qi, R, et al. Effects of admission hyperglycemia on mortality and costs in acute ischemic stroke. Neurology. 2002;59:67–71. PubMed

72. Baird, TA, Parsons, MW & Phanh, T, et al. Persistent poststroke hyperglycemia is independently associated with infarct expansion and worse clinical outcome. Stroke. 2003;34:2208–2214. PubMed

73. Capes, SE, Hunt, D, Malmberg, K, Pathak, P & Gerstein, HC. Stress hyperglycemia and prognosis of stroke in nondiabetic and diabetic patients: a systematic overview. Stroke. 2001;32:2426–2432. PubMed

74. Scott, JF, Robinson, GM, French, JM, O'Connell, JE, Alberti, KG & Gray, CS. Glucose potassium insulin infusions in the treatment of acute stroke patients with mild to moderate hyperglycemia: the Glucose Insulin in Stroke Trial (GIST). Stroke. 1999;30(4):793–799. PubMed

75. Wahlgren, NG & Ahmed, N. Neuroprotection in cerebral ischaemia: facts and fancies – the need for new approaches. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2004;17(Suppl. 1):153–166. PubMed

76. Lutsep, HL & Clark, WM. Current status of neuroprotective agents in the treatment of acute ischemic stroke. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2001;1:13–18. PubMed

77. The NINDS t-PA Stroke Study Group. Intracerebral hemorrhage after intravenous t-PA therapy for ischemic stroke. Stroke. 1997;28:2109–2118. PubMed

78. Hacke, W, Donnan, G & Fieschi, C, et al.; ATLANTIS Trials Investigators; ECASS Trials Investigators; NINDS rt-PA Study Group Investigators. Association of outcome with early stroke treatment: pooled analysis of ATLANTIS, ECASS, and NINDS rt-PA stroke trials. Lancet. 2004;363:768–774. PubMed

79. Wahlgren, N, Ahmed, N & Davalos, A, et al. Thrombolysis with alteplase for acute ischaemic stroke in the Safe Implementation of Thrombolysis in Stroke-Monitoring Study (SITS-MOST): an observational study. Lancet. 2007;369:275–282. PubMed

80. Furlan, AJ, Higashida, R, Wechsler, L & Schultz, G; PROACT II Investigators. PROACT II. Recombinant prourokinase (r-ProUK) in acute cerebral thromboembolism. Initial trial results. Stroke. 1999;30:234.

81. Inoue, T, Kimura, K, Minematsu, K & Yamaguchi, T; Japan Multicenter Stroke Investigators' Collaboration (J-MUSIC). A case-control analysis of intra-arterial urokinase thrombolysis in acute cardioembolic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2005;19:225–228. PubMed

82. Macleod, MR, Davis, SM & Mitchell, PJ, et al. Results of multicenter, randomised controlled trial of intra-arterial urokinase in the treatment of acute posterior circulation ischaemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2005;20:12–17. PubMed

83. Choi, JH, Bateman, BT & Mangla, S, et al. Endovascular recanalization therapy in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2006;37:419–424. PubMed

84. The IMS II Trial Investigators. The Interventional Management of Stroke (IMS) II Study. Stroke. 2007;38:2127–2135. PubMed

85. Adams, HP Jr. Emergent use of anticoagulation for treatment of patients with ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2002;33:856–861. PubMed

86. Coull, BM, Williams, LS & Goldstein, LB, et al. Anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents in acute ischemic stroke. Report of the Joint Stroke Guideline Development Committee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Stroke Association (a division of the American Heart Association). Neurology. 2002;59:13–22. PubMed

87. Wong, KS, Chen, C & Ng, PW, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin compared with aspirin for the treatment of acute ischaemic stroke in Asian patients with large artery occlusive disease: a randomised study. Lancet. 2007;6:407–413.

88. Berge, E, Abdelnoor, M, Nakstad, PH & Sandset, PM, on behalf of the HAEST Study Group. Low molecular-weight heparin versus aspirin in patients with acute ischaemic stroke and atrial fibrillation: a double-blind randomised study. Lancet. 2000;355:1205–1210. PubMed

89. CAST (Chinese Acute Stroke Trial) Collaborative Group. CAST: randomised placebo-controlled trial of early aspirin use in 20,000 patients with acute ischaemic stroke. Lancet. 1997;349:1641–1649. PubMed

90. International Stroke Trial Collaborative Group. The International Stroke Trial (IST): a randomised trial of aspirin, subcutaneous heparin, both, or neither among 19435 patients with acute ischaemic stroke. Lancet. 1997;349:1569–1581. PubMed

91. Adams, H Jr, Effron, MB & Torner, J, et al., for the AbESTT-II Investigators. Emergency administration of abciximab for treatment of patients with acute ischemic stroke results of an international phase III trial. Stroke. 2008;39:87–99. PubMed

92. Nedeltchev, K, Brekenfeld, C & Remonda, L, et al. Internal carotid artery stent implantation in 25 patients with acute stroke: preliminary results. Radiology. 2005;237:1029–1037. PubMed

93. Jovin, TG, Gupta, R & Uchino, K, et al. Emergent stenting of extracranial internal carotid artery occlusion in acute stroke has a high revascularization rate. Stroke. 2005;36:2426–2430. PubMed

94. Noser, EA, Hall, C & Alexandrov, A, et al. Aggressive mechanical clot disruption. A safe adjunct to thrombolytic therapy in acute stroke? Stroke. 2005;36:292–296. PubMed

95. Berlis, A, Lutsep, H & Barnwell, S, et al. Mechanical thrombolysis in acute ischemic stroke with endovascular photoacoustic recanalization. Stroke. 2004;35:1112–1116. PubMed

96. Alexandrov, AV. Ultrasound enhanced thrombolysis for stroke. Int J Stroke. 2006;1:26–29. PubMed

97. Yu, W, Binder, D, Foster-Barber, A, Malek, R, Smith, WS & Higashida, RT. Endovascular embolectomy of acute basilar artery occlusion. Neurology. 2003;61:1421–1423. PubMed

98. Smith, WS, Sung, G & Starkman, S, et al., for the MERCI Trial Investigators. Safety and efficacy of mechanical embolectomy in acute ischemic stroke. Results of the MERCI trial. Stroke. 2005;36:1432–1438. PubMed

•  California Acute Stroke Pilot Registry. The impact of standardized stroke orders on adherence to best practices. Neurology. 2005;65:360–365. PubMed

100. Langhorne, P. Measures to improve recovery in the acute phase of stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis. 1999;9(Suppl. 5):2–5. PubMed

101. Tutuarima, JA, van der Meulen, JH, de Haan, RJ, Van Straten, A & Limburg, M. Risk factors for falls of hospitalized stroke patients. Stroke. 1997;28:297–301. PubMed

102. Martino, R, Foley, N, Bhogal, S, Diamant, N, Speechley, M & Teasell, R. Dysphagia after stroke: incidence, diagnosis, and pulmonary complications. Stroke. 2005;36:2756–2763. PubMed

103. Mann, G & Hankey, GJ. Initial clinical and demographic predictors of swallowing impairment following acute stroke. Dysphagia. 2001;16:208–215. PubMed

104. Addington, WR, Stephens, RE & Gilliland, KA. Assessing the laryngeal cough reflex and the risk of developing pneumonia after stroke: an interhospital comparison. Stroke. 1999;30:1203–1207. PubMed

105. Wijdicks, EF & McMahon, MN. Percutaneous endoscopic gastronomy after acute stroke. Complications and outcome. Cerebrovasc Dis. 1999;9:109–111. PubMed

106. Harari, D, Norton, C, Lockwood, L & Swift, C. Treatment of constipation and fecal incontinence in stroke patients. Randomized controlled trial. Stroke. 2004;35:2549–2555. PubMed

107. Harari, D, Coshall, C, Rudd, AG & Wolfe, CD. New-onset fecal incontinence after stroke: prevalence, natural history, risk factors, and impact. Stroke. 2003;34:144–150. PubMed

108. Aslanyan, S, Weir, CJ, Diener, HC, Kaste, M & Lees, KR; GAIN International Steering Committee and Investigators. Pneumonia and urinary tract infection after acute ischaemic stroke: a tertiary analysis of the GAIN International trial. Eur J Neurol. 2004;11:49–53. PubMed

109. Sandercock, PA, van den Belt, AG, Lindley, RI & Slattery, J. Antithrombotic therapy in acute ischaemic stroke: an overview of the completed randomised trials. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1993;56:17–25. PubMed

110. Kamphuisen, P, Agnelli, G & Sebastianelli, M. Prevention of venous thromboembolism after acute ischemic stroke. J Thromb Haemost. 2005;3:1187–1194. PubMed

111. Kamphuisen, P & Agnelli, G. What is the optimal pharmacological prophylaxis for the prevention of deep-vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in patients with acute ischemic stroke? Thromb Res. 2007;119:265–274. PubMed

112. Adams, HP. Effective prophylaxis for deep vein thrombosis after stroke. Low-dose anticoagulation rather than stockings alone: for. Stroke. 2004;35:2911–2912. PubMed

113. Kamran, SI, Downey, D & Ruff, RL. Pneumatic sequential compression reduces the risk of deep vein thrombosis in stroke patients. Neurology. 1998;50:1683–1688. PubMed

114. Heinsius, T, Bogousslavsky, J & Van Melle, G. Large infarcts in the middle cerebral artery territory. Etiology and outcome patterns. Neurology. 1998;50:341–350. PubMed

115. Berrouschot, J, Sterker, M, Bettin, S, Koster, J & Schneider, D. Mortality of space-occupying ('malignant') middle cerebral artery infarction under conservative intensive care. Intensive Care Med. 1998;24:620–623. PubMed

116. Kasner, SE, Demchuk, AM & Berrouschot, J, et al. Predictors of fatal brain edema in massive hemispheric ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2001;32:2117–2123. PubMed

117. Gujjar, AR, Deibert, E, Manno, EM, Duff, S & Diringer, MN. Mechanical ventilation for ischemic stroke and intracerebral hemorrhage: indications, timing, and outcome. Neurology. 1998;51:447–451. PubMed

118. Frank, JI. Large hemispheric infarction, deterioration, and intracranial pressure. Neurology. 1995;45:1286–1290. PubMed

119. Manno, EM, Adams, RE, Derdeyn, CP, Powers, WJ & Diringer, MN. The effects of mannitol on cerebral edema after large hemispheric cerebral infarct. Neurology. 1999;52:583–587. PubMed

120. Robertson, SC, Lennarson, P, Hasan, DM & Traynelis, VC. Clinical course and surgical management of massive cerebral infarction. Neurosurgery. 2004;55:55–62. PubMed

121. Curry, WT Jr, Sethi, MK, Ogilvy, CS & Carter, BS. Factors associated with outcome after hemicraniectomy for large middle cerebral artery territory infarction. Neurosurgery. 2006;56:681–692.

122. Juttler, E, Schwab, S & Schmiedek, P, et al. for the DESTINY Study Group. Decompressive surgery for the treatment of malignant infarction of the middle cerebral artery (DESTINY): a randomized, controlled trial. Stroke. 2007;38:2518–2525. PubMed

123. Gupta, R, Connolly, ES, Mayer, S & Elkind, MSV. Hemicraniectomy for massive middle cerebral artery territory infarction. A systematic review. Stroke. 2004;35:539–543. PubMed

124. Schwab, S, Steiner, T & Aschoff, A, et al. Early hemicraniectomy in patients with complete middle cerebral artery infarction. Stroke. 1998;29:1888–1893. PubMed

125. Rieke, K, Krieger, D, Aschoff, A, Meyding-Lamade, V & Hacke, W. Therapeutic strategies in space-occupying cerebellar infarction based on clinical, neuroradiological, and neurophysical logical data. Cerebrovasc Dis. 1993;3:45–55.

126. Mathew, P, Teasdale, G, Bannan, A & Oluoch-Olunya, D. Neurosurgical management of cerebellar haematoma and infarct. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995;59:287–292. PubMed

127. Horwitz, NH & Ludolph, C. Acute obstructive hydrocephalus caused by cerebellar infarction. Treatment alternatives. Surg Neurol. 1983;20:13–19. PubMed

128. Okada, Y, Yamaguchi, T & Minematsu, K, et al. Hemorrhagic transformation in cerebral embolism. Stroke. 1989;20:598–603. PubMed

129. Derex, L, Hermier, M & Adeleine, P, et al. Clinical and imaging predictors of intracerebral haemorrhage in stroke patients treated with intravenous tissue plasminogen activator. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76:70–75. PubMed

130. Pohlmann-Eden, B, Cochius, JI, Hoch, DB & Hennerici, M. Stroke and epilepsy: critical review of the literature. Cerebrovasc Dis. 1997;7:2–9.

131. Camilo, O & Goldstein, LB. Seizures and epilepsy after ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2004;35:1769–1775. PubMed

132. Burn, J, Dennis, M, Bamford, J, Sandercock, P, Wade, D & Warlow, C. Epileptic seizures after a first stroke: the Oxfordshire Community Stroke Project. BMJ. 1997;315:1582–1587. PubMed

133. Rumbach, L, Sablot, D, Berger, E, Tatu, L, Vuillier, F & Moulin, T. Status epilepticus in stroke. Report on a hospital-based stroke cohort. Neurology. 2000;54:350–354. PubMed

Chapter 5 – Secondary Prevention for patients with coronary and other atherosclerotic vascular disease

1. AHA, Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics, 2008 Update.

2. Broderick, JP, Brott, T & Duldner, JE, et al. Volume of intracerebral hemorrhage. A powerful and easy-to-use predictor of 30-day mortality. Stroke. 1993;24:987–993. PubMed

3. Dennis, MS, Burn, JP & Sandercock, PA, et al. Long-term survival after first-ever stroke: the Oxfordshire Community Stroke Project. Stroke. 1993;24(6):796–800. PubMed

4. Qureshi, AI, Tuhrim, S & Broderick, JP, et al. Spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. New Engl J Med. 2001;344(19):1450–1460. PubMed

5. Flaherty, ML, Haverbusch, M & Sekar, P, et al. Long-term mortality after intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology. 2006;66:1182–1186. PubMed

6. Counsell, C, Boonyakarnkul, S & Dennis, M, et al. Primary intracerebral hemorrhage in the Oxfordshire Com-munity Stroke Project, 2: prognosis. Cerebrovasc Dis. 1995;5:26–34.

7. Goldstein, LB & Simel, DL. Is this patient having a stroke? JAMA. 2005;293:2391–2402. PubMed

8. Fujii, Y, Tanaka, R & Takeuchi, S, et al. Hematoma enlargement in spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. J Neurosurg. 1994;80:51–57. PubMed

9. Kazui, S, Minematsu, K & Yamamoto, H, et al. Predisposing factors to enlargement of spontaneous intracerebral hematoma. Stroke. 1997;28:2370–2375. PubMed

10. Kazui, S, Naritomi, H & Yamamoto, H, et al. Enlargement of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Incidence and time course. Stroke. 1996;27:1783–1787. PubMed

11. Ohwaki, K, Yano, E & Nagashima, H, et al. Blood pressure management in acute intracerebral hemorrhage: relationship between elevated blood pressure and hematoma enlargement. Stroke. 2004;35:1364–1367. PubMed

12. Brott, T, Broderick, J & Kothari, R, et al. Early hemorrhage growth in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke. 1997;28:1–5. PubMed

13. Broderick, JP, Diringer, MN & Hill, MD, et al. Recombinant Activated Factor VII Intracerebral Hemorrhage Trial Investigators. Determinants of intracerebral hemorrhage growth: an exploratory analysis. Stroke. 2007;38:1072–1075. PubMed

14. Kidwell, CS, Chalela, JA & Saver, JL, et al. Comparison of MRI and CT for detection of acute intracerebral hemorrhage. JAMA. 2004;292:1823–1830. PubMed

15. Singer, OC, Sitzer, M, du Mesnil de Rochemont, R & Neumann-Haefelin, T. Practical limitations of acute stroke MRI due to patient-related problems. Neurology. 2004;62:1848–1849. PubMed

16. Kothari, RU, Brott, TG & Broderick, JP, et al. The ABCs of measuring intracerebral hemorrhage volume. Stroke. 1996;27:1304–1305. PubMed

17. Broderick, JP, Adams, HP & Barsan, W, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a statement for healthcare professionals from a special writing group of the Stroke Council, American Heart Association. Stroke. 1999;30:905–915. PubMed

18. Poungvarin, N, Bhoopat, W & Viriyavejakul, A, et al. Effects of dexamethasone in primary supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med. 1987;316:1229–1233. PubMed

19. Haemodilution in acute stroke: results of the Italian haemodilution trial. Italian Acute Stroke Study Group. Lancet. 1988;1(8581):318–321. PubMed

20. Yu, YL, Kumana, CR & Lauder, IJ, et al. Treatment of acute cerebral hemorrhage with intravenous glycerol. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial. Stroke. 1992;23:967–971. PubMed

21. Tellez, H & Bauer, RB. Dexamethasone as treatment in cerebrovascular disease. 1. A controlled study in intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke. 1973;4:541–546. PubMed

22. Mayer, SA, Brun, NC & Broderick, J, et al. Europe/AustralAsia NovoSeven ICH Trial Investigators. Safety and feasibility of recombinant factor VIIa for acute intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke. 2005;36:74–79. PubMed

23. Hedner, U. Recombinant activated factor VII as a universal haemostatic agent. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 1998;9(Suppl. 1):S147–S152. PubMed

24. Schmidt, ML, Gamerman, S & Smith, HE, et al. Recombinant activated factor VII (rFVIIa) therapy for intra-cranial hemorrhage in hemophilia A patients with inhibitors. Am J Hematol. 1994;47:36–40. PubMed

25. Roberts, HR, Monroe, DM & White, GC. The use of recombinant factor VIIa in the treatment of bleeding disorders. Blood. 2004;104:3858–3864. Erratum in: Blood. 2005;105:2257.

26. Mayer, SA, Brun, NC & Broderick, J, et al. United States NovoSeven ICH Trial Investigators. Recombinant activated factor VII for acute intracerebral hemorrhage: US phase IIA trial. Neurocrit Care. 2006;4:206–214. PubMed

27. Mayer, SA, Brun, NC & Begtrup, K, et al. Recombinant activated factor VII for acute intracerebral hemorrhage. New Engl J Med. 2005;352(8):777–785. PubMed

28. Mayer, SA, Brun, NC & Begtrup, K, et al. Efficacy and safety of recombinant activated Factor VII for acute intracerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2127–2137. PubMed

29. Freeman, WD, Brott, TG & Barrett, KM, et al. Recombinant factor VIIa for rapid reversal of warfarin anticoagulation in acute intracranial hemorrhage. Mayo Clin Proc. 2004;79:1495–1500. PubMed

30. Brody, DL, Aiyagari, V, Shackleford, AM & Diringer, MN. Use of recombinant factor VIIa in patients with warfarin-associated intracranial hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care. 2005;2:263–267. PubMed

31. Leira, R, Dávalos, A & Silva, Y, et al. Stroke Project, Cerebrovascular Diseases Group of the Spanish Neuro-logical Society. Early neurologic deterioration in intracerebral hemorrhage: predictors and associated factors. Neurology. 2004;63:461–467. PubMed

32. Fogelholm, R, Avikainen, S & Murros, K. Prognostic value and determinants of first-day mean arterial pressure in spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke. 1997;28:1396–1400. PubMed

33. Qureshi, AI, Bliwise, DL & Bliwise, NG, et al. Rate of 24-hour blood pressure decline and mortality after spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a retrospective analysis with a random effects regression model. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:480–485. PubMed

34. Powers, WJ, Zazulia, AR & Videen, TO, et al. Autoregulation of cerebral blood flow surrounding acute (6 to 22 hours) intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology. 2001;57:18–24. PubMed

35. Misra, UK, Kalita, J, Ranjan, P & Mandal, SK. Mannitol in intracerebral hemorrhage: a randomized controlled study. J Neurol Sci. 2005;234:41–45. PubMed

36. Qureshi, AI, Bliwise, DL & Bliwise, NG, et al. Rate of 24-hour blood pressure decline and mortality after spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a retrospective analysis with a random effects regression model. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:480–485. PubMed

37. Kidwell, CS, Saver, JL & Mattiello, J, et al. Diffusion-perfusion MR evaluation of perihematomal injury in hyperacute intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology. 2001;57:1611–1617. PubMed

38. Qureshi, AI, Mohammad, YM & Yahia, AM, et al. A prospective multicenter study to evaluate the feasibility and safety of aggressive antihypertensive treatment in patients with acute intracerebral hemorrhage. J Intensive Care Med. 2005;20:34–42. PubMed

39. Jauch, EC, Lindsell, CJ & Adeoye, O, et al. Lack of evidence for an association between hemodynamic variables and hematoma growth in spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke. 2006;37:2061–2065. PubMed

40. Vespa, P. What is the optimal threshold for cerebral perfusion pressure following traumatic brain injury? Neurosurg Focus. 2003;15:E4. PubMed

41. Robertson, CS, Valadka, AB & Hannay, HJ, et al. Prevention of secondary ischemic insults after severe head injury. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:2086–2095. PubMed

42. Fernandes, HM, Siddique, S & Banister, K, et al. Continuous monitoring of ICP and CPP following ICH and its relationship to clinical, radiological and surgical parameters. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2000;76:463–466.

43. Anderson, CS, Huang, Y & Wang, JG, et al.; INTERACT Investigators. Intensive Blood Pressure Reduction in Acute Cerebral Haemorrhage Trial (INTERACT): a randomised pilot trial. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7:391–399. PubMed

44. Brott, T, Marler, JR & Olinger, CP, et al. Measurements of acute cerebral infarction: lesion size by computed tomography. Stroke. 1989;20:871–875. PubMed

45. Teasdale, G & Jennett, B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet. 1974;2:81–84. PubMed

46. Diringer, MN & Edwards, DF. Admission to a neurologic/neurosurgical intensive care unit is associated with reduced mortality rate after intracerebral hemorrhage. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:635–640. PubMed

47. Lundberg, N. Continuous recording and control of ventricular fluid pressure in neurosurgical practice. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 1960;36:1–193. PubMed

48. Adams, RE & Diringer, MN. Response to external ventricular drainage in spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage with hydrocephalus. Neurology. 1998;50:519–523. PubMed

49. Schade, RP, Schinkel, J & Visser, LG, et al. Bacterial meningitis caused by the use of ventricular or lumbar cerebrospinal fluid catheters. J Neurosurg. 2005;102:229–234. PubMed

50. Lozier, AP, Sciacca, RR, Romagnoli, MF & Connolly, ES Jr. Ventriculostomy-related infections: a critical review of the literature. Neurosurgery. 2002;51:170–181. PubMed

51. Holloway, KL, Barnes, T & Choi, S, et al. Ventriculostomy infections: the effect of monitoring duration and catheter exchange in 584 patients. J Neurosurg. 1996;85:419–424. PubMed

52. Diringer, MN & Zazulia, AR. Osmotic therapy: fact and fiction. Neurocrit Care. 2004;1:219–233. PubMed

53. Qureshi, AI & Suarez, JI. Use of hypertonic saline solutions in treatment of cerebral edema and intracranial hypertension. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:3301–3313. PubMed

54. Stocchetti, N, Maas, AI, Chieregato, A & van der Plas, AA. Hyperventilation in head injury: a review. Chest. 2005;127:1812–1827. PubMed

55. Schwab, S, Spranger, M, Schwarz, S & Hacke, W. Barbiturate coma in severe hemispheric stroke: useful or obsolete? Neurology. 1997;48:1608–1613. PubMed

56. Fogelholm, R, Murros, K, Rissanen, A & Avikainen, S. Admission blood glucose and short term survival in primary intracerebral haemorrhage: a population based study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76:349–353. PubMed

57. Demchuk, AM, Morgenstern, LB & Krieger, DW, et al. Serum glucose level and diabetes predict tissue plasminogen activator-related intracerebral hemorrhage in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke. 1999;30:34–39. PubMed

58. van Kooten, F, Hoogerbrugge, N, Naarding, P & Koudstaal, PJ. Hyperglycemia in the acute phase of stroke is not caused by stress. Stroke. 1993;24:1129–1132. PubMed

59. Weir, CJ, Murray, GD, Dyker, AG & Lees, KR. Is hyperglycaemia an independent predictor of poor outcome after acute stroke? Results of a long-term follow up study. BMJ. 1997;314:1303–1306. PubMed

60. Adams, HP, del Zoppo, G & Alberts, MJ, et al. Guidelines for the early management of adults with ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2007;38:1655–1711. PubMed

61. Passero, S, Rocchi, R & Rossi, S, et al. Seizures after spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage. Epilepsia. 2002;43:1175–1180. PubMed

62. Vespa, PM, O'Phelan, K & Shah, M, et al. Acute seizures after intracerebral hemorrhage: a factor in progressive midline shift and outcome. Neurology. 2003;60:1441–1446. PubMed

63. Michenfelder, JD & Milde, JH. The relationship among canine brain temperature, metabolism, and function during hypothermia. Anesthesiology. 1991;75:130–136. PubMed

64. Takagi, K. Body temperature in acute stroke. Stroke. 2002;33:2154–2155; author reply 2154–2155. PubMed

65. Kawai, N, Nakamura, T, Okauchi, M & Nagao, S. Effects of hypothermia on intracranial hemodynamics and ischemic brain damage-studies in the rat acute subdural hematoma model. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2000;76:529–533.

66. Kawai, N, Nakamura, T, Okauchi, M & Nagao, S. Effects of hypothermia on intracranial pressure and brain edema formation: studies in a rat acute subdural hematoma model. J Neurotrauma. 2000;17:193–202. PubMed

67. Schwarz, S, Häfner, K, Aschoff, A & Schwab, S. Incidence and prognostic significance of fever following intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology. 2000;54:354–361. PubMed

68. Steiner, T, Friede, T & Aschoff, A, et al. Effect and feasibility of controlled rewarming after moderate hypothermia in stroke patients with malignant infarction of the middle cerebral artery. Stroke. 2001;32:2833–2835. PubMed

69. Schwab, S, Georgiadis, D & Berrouschot, J, et al. Feasibility and safety of moderate hypothermia after massive hemispheric infarction. Stroke. 2001;32:2033–2035. PubMed

70. Fraser, DG, Moody, AR & Morgan, PS, et al. Diagnosis of lower-limb deep venous thrombosis: a prospective blinded study of magnetic resonance direct thrombus imaging. Ann Intern Med. 2002;136:89–98. PubMed

71. Lacut, K, Bressollette, L & Le Gal, G, et al.; VICTORIAh (Venous Intermittent Compression and Thrombosis Occurrence Related to Intra-cerebral Acute hemorrhage) Investigators. Prevention of venous thrombosis in patients with acute intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology. 2005;65:865–869. PubMed

72. Boeer, A, Voth, E, Henze, T & Prange, HW. Early heparin therapy in patients with spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1991;54:466–467. PubMed

73. Bailey, RD, Hart, RG, Benavente, O & Pearce, LA. Recurrent brain hemorrhage is more frequent than ischemic stroke after intracranial hemorrhage. Neurology. 2001;56:773–777. PubMed

74. Eckman, MH, Rosand, J & Knudsen, KA, et al. Can patients be anticoagulated after intracerebral hemorrhage? A decision analysis. Stroke. 2003;34:1710–1716. PubMed

75. Decousus, H, Leizorovicz, A & Parent, F, et al. A clinical trial of vena caval filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism in patients with proximal deep-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:409–415. PubMed

76. Chapman, N, Huxley, R & Anderson, C, et al. Effects of a perindopril-based blood pressure-lowering regimen on the risk of recurrent stroke according to stroke subtype and medical history: the PROGRESS Trial. Stroke. 2004;35:116–121. PubMed

77. Flaherty, ML, Kissela, B & Woo, D, et al. The increasing incidence of anticoagulant-associated intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology. 2007;68:116–121. PubMed

78. Rosand, J, Eckman, MH & Knudsen, KA, et al. The effect of warfarin and intensity of anticoagulation on outcome of intracerebral hemorrhage. Arch Intern Med. 2004;164:880–884. PubMed

79. Smith, EE, Rosand, J & Knudsen, KA, et al. Leukoaraiosis is associated with warfarin-related hemorrhage following ischemic stroke. Neurology. 2002;59:193–197. PubMed

80. Rosand, J, Hylek, EM, O'Donnell, HC & Greenberg, SM. Warfarin-associated hemorrhage and cerebral amyloid angiopathy: a genetic and pathologic study. Neurology. 2000;55:947–951. PubMed

81. Fang, MC, Chang, Y & Hylek, EM, et al. Advanced age, anticoagulation intensity, and risk for intracranial hemorrhage among patients taking warfarin for atrial fibrillation. Ann Intern Med. 2004;141:745–752. PubMed

82. Hart, RG, Boop, BS & Anderson, DC. Oral anticoagulants and intracranial hemorrhage. Facts and hypotheses. Stroke. 1995;26:1471–1477. PubMed

83. Steiner, T, Rosand, J & Diringer, M. Intracerebral hemorrhage associated with oral anticoagulant therapy: current practices and unresolved questions. Stroke. 2006;37:256–262. PubMed

84. Ansell, J, Hirsh, J & Poller, L, et al. The pharmacology and management of the vitamin K antagonists: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 2004;126:204S–233S. Erratum in: Chest. 2005;127:415–416. PubMed

85. Schulman, S. Clinical practice. Care of patients receiving long-term anticoagulant therapy. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:675–683. PubMed

86. Makris, M, Greaves, M & Phillips, WS, et al. Emergency oral anticoagulant reversal: the relative efficacy of infusions of fresh frozen plasma and clotting factor concentrate on correction of the coagulopathy. Thromb Haemost. 1997;77:477–480. PubMed

87. Lankiewicz, MW, Hays, J & Friedman, KD, et al. Urgent reversal of warfarin with prothrombin complex concentrate. J Thromb Haemost. 2006;4:967–970. PubMed

88. Baker, RI, Coughlin, PB & Gallus, AS, et al. Warfarin reversal: consensus guidelines, on behalf of the Australasian Society of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. Med J Aust. 2004;181:492–497. Erratum in: Med J Aust. 2005;182:48. PubMed

89. Risk factors for stroke and efficacy of antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation. Analysis of pooled data from five randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 1994;154:1449–1457. Erratum in: Arch Intern Med. 1994;154:2254. PubMed

90. Secondary prevention in non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation after transient ischaemic attack or minor stroke. EAFT (European Atrial Fibrillation Trial) Study Group. Lancet. 1993;342:1255–1262. PubMed

91. Cannegieter, SC, Rosendaal, FR & Briet, E. Thromboembolic and bleeding complications in patients with mechanical heart valve prostheses. Circulation. 1994;89:635–641. PubMed

92. Butler, AC & Tait, RC. Restarting anticoagulation in prosthetic heart valve patients after intracranial haemorrhage: a 2-year follow-up. Br J Haematol. 1998;103:1064–1066. PubMed

93. Wijdicks, EF, Schievink, WI, Brown, RD & Mullany, CJ. The dilemma of discontinuation of anticoagulation therapy for patients with intracranial hemorrhage and mechanical heart valves. Neurosurgery. 1998;42:769–773. PubMed

94. Phan, TG, Koh, M & Wijdicks, EF. Safety of discontinuation of anticoagulation in patients with intracranial hemorrhage at high thromboembolic risk. Arch Neurol. 2000;57:1710–1713. PubMed

95. Fredriksson, K, Norrving, B & Stromblad, LG. Emergency reversal of anticoagulation after intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke. 1992;23:972–977. PubMed

96. Boulis, NM, Bobek, MP, Schmaier, A & Hoff, JT. Use of factor IX complex in warfarin-related intracranial hemorrhage. Neurosurgery. 1999;45:1113–1118. PubMed

97. Cartmill, M, Dolan, G, Byrne, JL & Byrne, PO. Prothrombin complex concentrate for oral anticoagulant reversal in neurosurgical emergencies. Br J Neurosurg. 2000;14:458–461. PubMed

98. Bertram, M, Bonsanto, M, Hacke, W & Schwab, S. Managing the therapeutic dilemma: patients with spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage and urgent need for anticoagulation. J Neurol. 2000;247:209–214. PubMed

•  Sjoblom, L, Hardemark, HG & Lindgren, A, et al. Management and prognostic features of intracerebral hemorrhage during anticoagulant therapy: a Swedish multicenter study. Stroke. 2001;32:2567–2574. PubMed

100. Yasaka, M, Sakata, T, Minematsu, K & Naritomi, H. Correction of INR by prothrombin complex concentrate and vitamin K in patients with warfarin related hemorrhagic complication. Thromb Res. 2002;108:25–30. PubMed

101. Albers, GW, Bates, VE & Clark, WM, et al. Intravenous tissue-type plasminogen activator for treatment of acute stroke: the Standard Treatment with Alteplase to Reverse Stroke (STARS) study. JAMA. 2000;283:1145–1150. PubMed

102. Intracerebral hemorrhage after intravenous t-PA therapy for ischemic stroke. The NINDS t-PA Stroke Study Group. Stroke. 1997;28:2109–2118. PubMed

103. Grotta, JC, Burgin, WS & El-Mitwalli, A, et al. Intravenous tissue-type plasminogen activator therapy for ischemic stroke: Houston experience 1996 to 2000. Arch Neurol. 2001;58:2009–2013. PubMed

104. Juvela, S, Heiskanen, O & Poranen, A, et al. The treatment of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. A prospective randomized trial of surgical and conservative treatment. J Neurosurg. 1989;70:755–758. PubMed

105. Zuccarello, M, Brott, T & Derex, L, et al. Early surgical treatment for supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage: a randomized feasibility study. Stroke. 1999;30:1833–1839. PubMed

106. Mendelow, AD, Gregson, BA & Fernandes, HM, et al. Early surgery versus initial conservative treatment in patients with spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral haematomas in the International Surgical Trial in Intracerebral Haemorrhage (STICH): a randomised trial. Lancet. 2005;365:387–397. PubMed

107. van Loon, J, Van Calenbergh, F, Goffin, J & Plets, C. Controversies in the management of spontaneous cerebellar haemorrhage. A consecutive series of 49 cases and review of the literature. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1993;122:187–193. PubMed

108. Morioka, J, Fujii, M & Kato, S, et al. Surgery for spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage has greater remedial value than conservative therapy. Surg Neurol. 2006;65:67–72. PubMed

109. Kirollos, RW, Tyagi, AK & Ross, SA, et al. Management of spontaneous cerebellar hematomas: a prospective treatment protocol. Neurosurgery. 2001;49:1378–1386. PubMed

110. Auer, LM, Deinsberger, W & Niederkorn, K, et al. Endoscopic surgery versus medical treatment for spontaneous intracerebral hematoma: a randomized study. J Neurosurg. 1989;70:530–535. PubMed

111. Zuccarello, M, Brott, T & Derex, L, et al. Early surgical treatment for supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage: a randomized feasibility study. Stroke. 1999;30:1833–1839. PubMed

112. Teernstra, OP, Evers, SM & Lodder, J, et al. Stereotactic treatment of intracerebral hematoma by means of a plasminogen activator: a multicenter randomized controlled trial (SICHPA). Stroke. 2003;34:968–974. PubMed

113. Rohde, V, Schaller, C & Hassler, WE. Intraventricular recombinant tissue plasminogen activator for lysis of intraventricular haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995;58:447–451. PubMed

114. Naff, NJ, Hanley, DF & Keyl, PM, et al. Intraventricular thrombolysis speeds blood clot resolution: results of a pilot, prospective, randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Neurosurgery. 2004;54:577–583. PubMed

115. Findlay, JM, Grace, MG & Weir, BK. Treatment of intraventricular hemorrhage with tissue plasminogen activator. Neurosurgery. 1993;32:941–947. PubMed

116. Mayfrank, L, Lippitz, B & Groth, M, et al. Effect of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator on clot lysis and ventricular dilatation in the treatment of severe intraventricular haemorrhage. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1993;122:32–38. Erratum in: Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1994;126:201. PubMed

117. Wagner, KR, Xi, G & Hua, Y, et al. Ultra-early clot aspiration after lysis with tissue plasminogen activator in a porcine model of intracerebral hemorrhage: edema reduction and blood-brain barrier protection. J Neurosurg. 1999;90:491–498. PubMed

118. Lippitz, BE, Mayfrank, L & Spetzger, U, et al. Lysis of basal ganglia haematoma with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rt-PA) after stereotactic aspiration: initial results. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1994;127:157–160. PubMed

119. Schaller, C, Rohde, V, Meyer, B & Hassler, W. Stereotactic puncture and lysis of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage using recombinant tissue-plasminogen activator. Neurosurgery. 1995;36:328–333. PubMed

120. Vespa, P, McArthur, D & Miller, C, et al. Frameless stereotactic aspiration and thrombolysis of deep intracerebral hemorrhage is associated with reduction of hemorrhage volume and neurological improvement. Neurocrit Care. 2005;2:274–281. PubMed

121. Kaneko, M, Tanaka, K & Shimada, T, et al. Long-term evaluation of ultra-early operation for hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage in 100 cases. J Neurosurg. 1983;58:838–842. PubMed

122. Morgenstern, LB, Demchuk, AM & Kim, DH, et al. Rebleeding leads to poor outcome in ultra-early craniotomy for intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology. 2001;56:1294–1299. PubMed

123. Brown, DL & Morgenstern, LB. Stopping the bleeding in intracerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:828–830. PubMed

124. Tan, SH, Ng, PY & Yeo, TT, et al. Hypertensive basal ganglia hemorrhage: a prospective study comparing surgical and nonsurgical management. Surg Neurol. 2001;56:287–292. PubMed

125. Murthy, JM, Chowdary, GV & Murthy, TV, et al. Decompressive craniectomy with clot evacuation in large hemispheric hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care. 2005;2:258–262. PubMed

126. Zurasky, JA, Aiyagari, V & Zazulia, AR, et al. Early mortality following spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology. 2005;64:725–727. PubMed

127. Becker, KJ, Baxter, AB & Cohen, WA, et al. Withdrawal of support in intracerebral hemorrhage may lead to self-fulfilling prophecies. Neurology. 2001;56:766–772. PubMed

128. Woo, D, Haverbusch, M & Sekar, P, et al. Effect of untreated hypertension on hemorrhagic stroke. Stroke. 2004;35:1703–1708. PubMed

129. Feldmann, E, Broderick, JP & Kernan, WN, et al. Major risk factors for intracerebral hemorrhage in the young are modifiable. Stroke. 2005;36:1881–1885. PubMed

130. Thrift, AG, Donnan, GA & McNeil, JJ. Heavy drinking, but not moderate or intermediate drinking, increases the risk of intracerebral hemorrhage. Epidemiology. 1999;10:307–312. PubMed

Chapter 6 – Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (PCI)

1. Mayberg, MR, Batjer, HH & Dacey, R, et al. Guidelines for the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. A statement for healthcare professionals from a special writing group of the Stroke Council, American Heart Association. Stroke. 1994;25:2315–2328. PubMed

2. Sakowitz, OW, Raabe, A, Vucak, D, Kiening, KL & Unterberg, AW. Contemporary management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage in Germany: results of a survey among 100 neurosurgical departments. Neurosurgery. 2006;58:137–145. PubMed

3. Wijdicks, EF, Kallmes, DF, Manno, EM, Fulgham, JR & Piepgras, DG. Subarachnoid hemorrhage: neurointensive care and aneurysm repair. Mayo Clin Proc. 2005;80:550–559. PubMed

4. Schievink, WI. Intracranial aneurysms. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:28–40. PubMed

5. Graf, CJ & Nibbelink, DW. Cooperative study of intracranial aneurysms and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Report on a randomized treatment study. 3. Intracranial surgery. Stroke. 1974;5:557–601. PubMed

6. King, JT Jr. Epidemiology of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 1997;7:659–668. PubMed

7. Brisman, JL, Song, JK & Newell, DW. Cerebral aneurysms. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:928–939. PubMed

8. Butler, WE, Barker, FG & Crowell, RM. Patients with polycystic kidney disease would benefit from routine magnetic resonance angiographic screening for intracerebral aneurysms: a decision analysis. Neurosurgery. 1996;38:506–515. PubMed

9. Johnston, SC, Selvin, S & Gress, DR. The burden, trends, and demographics of mortality from subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology. 1998;50:1413–1418. PubMed

10. Sames, TA, Storrow, AB, Finkelstein, JA & Magoon, MR. Sensitivity of new-generation computed tomography in subarachnoid hemorrhage. Acad Emerg Med. 1996;3:16–20. PubMed

11. Okahara, M, Kiyosue, H & Yamashita, M, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of magnetic resonance angiography for cerebral aneurysms in correlation with 3D-digital subtraction angiographic images: a study of 133 aneurysms. Stroke. 2002;33:1803–1808. PubMed

12. White, PM, Teasdale, EM, Wardlaw, JM & Easton, V. Intracranial aneurysms: CT angiography and MR angiography for detection prospective blinded comparison in a large patient cohort. Radiology. 2001;219:739–749. PubMed

13. White, PM, Wardlaw, JM & Easton, V. Can noninvasive imaging accurately depict intracranial aneurysms? A systematic review. Radiology. 2000;217:361–370. PubMed

14. Chappell, ET, Moure, FC & Good, MC. Comparison of computed tomographic angiography with digital subtraction angiography in the diagnosis of cerebral aneurysms: a meta-analysis. Neurosurgery. 2003;52:624–631. PubMed

15. Chen, W, Wang, J, Xin, W, Peng, Y & Xu, Q. Accuracy of 16-row multislice computed tomographic angiography for assessment of small cerebral aneurysms. Neurosurgery. 2008;62:113–121. PubMed

16. Hoh, BL, Cheung, AC, Rabinov, JD, Pryor, JC, Carter, BS & Ogilvy, CS. Results of a prospective protocol of computed tomographic angiography in place of catheter angiography as the only diagnostic and pretreatment planning study for cerebral aneurysms by a combined neurovascular team. Neurosurgery. 2004;54:1329–1340. PubMed

17. Dion, JE, Gates, PC, Fox, AJ, Barnett, HJ & Blom, RJ. Clinical events following neuroangiography: a prospective study. Stroke. 1987;18:997–1004. PubMed

18. Heiserman, JE, Dean, BL & Hodak, JA, et al. Neurologic complications of cerebral angiography. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1994;15:1401–1407. PubMed

19. Polmear, A. Sentinel headaches in aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage: what is the true incidence? A systematic review. Cephalalgia. 2003;23:935–941. PubMed

20. National guidelines for analysis of cerebrospinal fluid for bilirubin in suspected subarachnoid haemorrhage. Ann Clin Biochem. 2003;40:481–488. PubMed

21. Cross, DT III, Tirschwell, DL & Clark, MA, et al. Mortality rates after subarachnoid hemorrhage: variations according to hospital case volume in 18 states. J Neurosurg. 2003;99:810–817. PubMed

22. Rhoney, DH, Tipps, LB, Murry, KR, Basham, MC, Michael, DB & Coplin, WM. Anticonvulsant prophylaxis and timing of seizures after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology. 2000;55:258–265. PubMed

23. Haley, EC Jr, Kassell, NF & Torner, JC. The International Cooperative Study on the timing of aneurysm surgery. The North American experience. Stroke. 1992;23:205–214. PubMed

24. Suarez, JI, Tarr, RW & Selman, WR. Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:387–396. PubMed

25. van, GJ, Van Dongen, KJ, Vermeulen, M & Hijdra, A. Perimesencephalic hemorrhage: a nonaneurysmal and benign form of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology. 1985;35:493–497. PubMed

26. Kershenovich, A, Rappaport, ZH & Maimon, S. Brain computed tomography angiographic scans as the sole diagnostic examination for excluding aneurysms in patients with perimesencephalic subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery. 2006;59:798–801. PubMed

27. Murayama, Y, Nien, YL & Duckwiler, G, et al. Guglielmi detachable coil embolization of cerebral aneurysms: 11 years' experience. J Neurosurg. 2003;98:959–966. PubMed

28. Brisman, JL, Niimi, Y, Song, JK & Berenstein, A. Aneurysmal rupture during coiling: low incidence and good outcomes at a single large volume center. Neurosurgery. 2005;57:1103–1109. PubMed

29. Song, JK, Niimi, Y & Fernandez, PM, et al. Thrombus formation during intracranial aneurysm coil placement: treatment with intra-arterial abciximab. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2004;25:1147–1153. PubMed

30. Shanno, GB, Armonda, RA, Benitez, RP & Rosenwasser, RH. Assessment of acutely unsuccessful attempts at detachable coiling in intracranial aneurysms. Neurosurgery. 2001;48:1066–1072. PubMed

31. Raymond, J, Guilbert, F & Weill, A, et al. Long-term angiographic recurrences after selective endovascular treatment of aneurysms with detachable coils. Stroke. 2003;34:1398–1403. PubMed

32. David, CA, Vishteh, AG, Spetzler, RF, Lemole, M, Lawton, MT & Partovi, S. Late angiographic follow-up review of surgically treated aneurysms. J Neurosurg. 1999;91:396–401. PubMed

33. Molyneux, A, Kerr, R & Stratton, I, et al. International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial (ISAT) of neurosurgical clipping versus endovascular coiling in 2143 patients with ruptured intracranial aneurysms: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2002;360:1267–1274. PubMed

34. Molyneux, AJ, Kerr, RS & Yu, LM, et al. International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial (ISAT) of neurosurgical clipping versus endovascular coiling in 2143 patients with ruptured intracranial aneurysms: a randomised comparison of effects on survival, dependency, seizures, rebleeding, subgroups, and aneurysm occlusion. Lancet. 2005;366:809–817. PubMed

35. Mitchell, P, Kerr, R, Mendelow, AD & Molyneux, A. Could late rebleeding overturn the superiority of cranial aneurysm coil embolization over clip ligation seen in the International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial? J Neurosurg. 2008;108:437–442. PubMed

36. Brisman, JL, Eskridge, JM & Newell, DW. Neurointer-ventional treatment of vasospasm. Neurol Res. 2006;28:769–776. PubMed

37. Barker, FG & Ogilvy, CS. Efficacy of prophylactic nimodipine for delayed ischemic deficit after subarachnoid hemorrhage: a meta-analysis. J Neurosurg. 1996;84:405–414. PubMed

38. Dorhout Mees, SM, van Dijk, GW, Algra, A, Kempink, DR & Rinkel, GJ. Glucose levels and outcome after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology. 2003;61:1132–1133. PubMed

39. Bulsara, KR, McGirt, MJ & Liao, L, et al. Use of the peak troponin value to differentiate myocardial infarction from reversible neurogenic left ventricular dysfunction associated with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg. 2003;98:524–528. PubMed

40. Zaroff, JG, Rordorf, GA, Ogilvy, CS & Picard, MH. Regional patterns of left ventricular systolic dysfunction after subarachnoid hemorrhage: evidence for neurally mediated cardiac injury. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2000;13:774–779. PubMed

41. Jain, R, Deveikis, J & Thompson, BG. Management of patients with stunned myocardium associated with subarachnoid hemorrhage. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2004;25:126–129. PubMed

42. Zaroff, JG, Rordorf, GA, Newell, JB, Ogilvy, CS & Levinson, JR. Cardiac outcome in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage and electrocardiographic abnormalities. Neurosurgery. 1999;44:34–39. PubMed

43. International Study of Unruptured Intracranial Aneurysm Investigators. Unruptured intracranial aneurysms – risk of rupture and risks of surgical intervention. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1725–1733. PubMed

44. Wiebers, DO, Whisnant, JP & Huston, J III, et al. Unruptured intracranial aneurysms: natural history, clinical outcome, and risks of surgical and endovascular treatment. Lancet. 2003;362:103–110. PubMed

45. Juvela, S, Porras, M & Poussa, K. Natural history of unruptured intracranial aneurysms: probability of and risk factors for aneurysm rupture. J Neurosurg. 2008;108(5):1052–1060. PubMed

46. King, JT Jr, Berlin, JA & Flamm, ES. Morbidity and mortality from elective surgery for asymptomatic, unruptured, intracranial aneurysms: a meta-analysis. J Neurosurg. 1994;81:837–842. PubMed

47. Solomon, RA, Fink, ME & Pile-Spellman, J. Surgical management of unruptured intracranial aneurysms. J Neurosurg. 1994;80:440–446. PubMed

48. Johnston, SC, Wilson, CB & Halbach, VV, et al. Endovascular and surgical treatment of unruptured cerebral aneurysms: comparison of risks. Ann Neurol. 2000;48:11–19. PubMed

49. Johnston, SC, Dudley, RA, Gress, DR & Ono, L. Surgical and endovascular treatment of unruptured cerebral aneurysms at university hospitals. Neurology. 1999;52:1799–1805. PubMed

50. Johnston, SC, Zhao, S, Dudley, RA, Berman, MF & Gress, DR. Treatment of unruptured cerebral aneurysms in California. Stroke. 2001;32:597–605. PubMed

51. Bederson, JB, Awad, IA & Wiebers, DO, et al. Recommendations for the management of patients with unruptured intracranial aneurysms: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Stroke Council of the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2000;102:2300–2308. PubMed

52. Friedlander, RM. Clinical practice. Arteriovenous malformations of the brain. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:2704–2712. PubMed

53. The Arteriovenous Malformation Study Group. Arteriovenous malformations of the brain in adults. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1812–1818. PubMed

54. Wilkins, RH. Natural history of intracranial vascular malformations: a review. Neurosurgery. 1985;16:421–430. PubMed

55. Stapf, C, Mast, H & Sciacca, RR, et al. Predictors of hemorrhage in patients with untreated brain arteriovenous malformation. Neurology. 2006;66:1350–1355. PubMed

56. Hartmann, A, Mast, H, Choi, JH, Stapf, C & Mohr, JP. Treatment of arteriovenous malformations of the brain. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2007;7:28–34. PubMed

57. Spetzler, RF & Martin, NA. A proposed grading system for arteriovenous malformations. J Neurosurg. 1986;65:476–483. PubMed

58. Haw, CS, terBrugge, K, Willinsky, R & Tomlinson, G. Complications of embolization of arteriovenous malformations of the brain. J Neurosurg. 2006;104:226–232. PubMed

59. Karlsson, B, Lindquist, C & Steiner, L. Prediction of obliteration after gamma knife surgery for cerebral arteriovenous malformations. Neurosurgery. 1997;40:425–430. PubMed

60. Pollock, BE, Flickinger, JC, Lunsford, LD, Maitz, A & Kondziolka, D. Factors associated with successful arteriovenous malformation radiosurgery. Neurosurgery. 1998;42:1239–1244. PubMed

61. Ogilvy, CS, Stieg, PE & Awad, I, et al. AHA Scientific Statement: Recommendations for the management of intracranial arteriovenous malformations: a statement for healthcare professionals from a special writing group of the Stroke Council, American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2001;32:1458–1471. PubMed

Chapter 7 – Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery (CABG)

1. Rosamond, W, Flegal, K & Furie, K, et al.; American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Heart disease and stroke statistics – 2008 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation. 2008;117:e25–e146. PubMed

2. Rothwell, PM & Warlow, CP. Timing of TIAs preceding stroke. Time window for prevention is very short. Neurology. 2005;64:817–820. PubMed

3. Johnston, SC, Gress, DR, Browner, WS & Sidney, S. Short-term prognosis after emergency department diagnosis of TIA. JAMA. 2000;284:2901–2906. PubMed

4. Kennedy, J, Hill, MD & Ryckborst, KJ, et al., for the FASTER Investigators. Fast assessment of stroke and transient ischaemic attack to prevent early recurrence (FASTER): a randomised controlled pilot trial. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6:961–969. PubMed

5. Inatomi, Y, Kimura, K & Yonehara, T, et al. DWI abnormalities and clinical characteristics in TIA patients. Neurology. 2004;62:376–380. PubMed

6. Prabhakaran, S, Wright, CB & Yoshita, M, et al. Prevalence and determinants of subclinical brain infarction: the Northern Manhattan Study. Neurology. 2008;70:425–430. PubMed

7. Sacco, RL, Adams, R & Albers, G, et al.; American Heart Association; American Stroke Association Council on Stroke; Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention; American Academy of Neurology. Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Coun-cil on Stroke. Stroke. 2006;37:577–617. PubMed

8. Adams, RJ, Albers, G & Alberts, MJ, et al. Update to the AHA/ASA recommendations for the prevention of stroke in patients with stroke and transient ischemic attack. Stroke. 2008;39:1647–1652. PubMed

9. MacMahon, S, Peto, R & Cutler, J, et al. Blood pressure, stroke and coronary heart disease: part 1. Prolonged differences in blood pressure: prospective observational studies corrected for the regression dilution bias. Lancet. 1990;335:756–774.

10. Sagie, A, Larson, MG & Levy, D. The natural history of borderline isolated systolic hypertension. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:1912–1917. PubMed

11. Rashid, P, Leonardi-Bee, J & Bath, P. Blood pressure reduction and secondary prevention of stroke and other vascular events: a systematic review. Stroke. 2003;34:2741–2748. PubMed

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138. The North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Collaborators. Beneficial effect of carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients with high-grade stenosis. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:445–453. PubMed

139. Streifler, JY, Eliasziw, M & Benavente, OR, et al. The risk of stroke in patients with first-ever retinal vs hemispheric transient ischemic attacks and high-grade carotid stenosis: North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial. Arch Neurol. 1995;52:246–249. PubMed

140. Barnett, HJ, Taylor, DW & Eliasziw, M, et al. Benefit of carotid endarterectomy in patients with symptomatic moderate or severe stenosis: North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Collaborators. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1415–1425. PubMed

141. The European Carotid Surgery Trialists' Collaborative Group. Randomised trial of endarterectomy for recently symptomatic carotid stenosis: final results of the MRC European Carotid Surgery Trial (ECST). Lancet. 1998;351:1379–1387. PubMed

142. Mayberg, MR, Wilson, SE & Yatsu, F, et al. Carotid endarterectomy and prevention of cerebral ischemia in symptomatic carotid stenosis: Veterans Affairs Cooperative Studies Program 309 Trialist Group. JAMA. 1991;266:3289–3294. PubMed

143. Rothwell, PM, Eliasziw, M & Gutnikov, SA, et al., for the Carotid Endarterectomy Trialists Collaboration. Analysis of pooled data from the randomized controlled trials of endarterectomy for symptomatic carotid stenosis. Lancet. 2003;361:107–116. PubMed

144. Rothwell, PM, Eliasziw, M, Gutnikov, SA, Warlow, CP & Barnett, HJM, for the Carotid Endarterectomy Trialists Collaboration. Endarterectomy for carotid stenosis in relation to clinical subgroups and timing of surgery. Lancet. 2004;363:915–924. PubMed

145. Redgrave, JNE, Lovett, JK, Gallagher, PJ & Rothwell, PM. Histological assessment of 526 symptomatic carotid plaques in relation to the nature and timing of ischemic symptoms. The Oxford plaque study. Circulation. 2006;113:2320–2328. PubMed

146. Rothwell, PM, Mehta, Z, Howard, SC, Gutnikov, SA & Warlow, CP. From subgroups to individuals: general principles and the example of carotid endarterectomy. Lancet. 2005;365:256–265. PubMed

147. Yadav, JS, Wholey, MH & Kuntz, RE, et al., for the Stenting and Angioplasty with Protection in Patients at High Risk for Endarterectomy Investigators. Protected carotid-artery stenting versus endarterectomy in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:1493–1501. PubMed

148. Mas, JL, Chatellier, G & Beyssen, B, et al., for the EVA-3S Investigators. Endarterectomy versus stenting in patients with symptomatic severe carotid stenosis. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:1660–1671. PubMed

149. The SPACE Collaborative Group. 30 day results from the SPACE trial of stent-protected angioplasty versus carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients: a randomized non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2006;368:1239–1247. PubMed

150. Hobson, RW 2nd, Howard, VJ & Roubin, GS, et al.; CREST Investigators. Carotid artery stenting is associated with increased complications in octogenarians: 30-day stroke and death rates in the CREST lead-in phase. J Vasc Surg. 2004;40:1106–1111. PubMed

151. Sacco, RL, Kargman, DE, Gu, Q & Zamanillo, MC. Race-ethnicity and determinants of intracranial atherosclerotic cerebral infarction: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Stroke. 1995;26:14–20. PubMed

152. Wong, KS, Huang, YN & Gao, S, et al. Intracranial stenosis in Chinese patients with acute stroke. Neurology. 1998;50:812–813. PubMed

153. Chimowitz, MI, Lynn, MJ & Howlett-Smith, H, et al., for the Warfarin–Aspirin Symptomatic Intracranial Dis-ease Trial Investigators. Comparison of warfarin and aspirin for symptomatic intracranial arterial stenosis. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1305–1316. PubMed

154. Feldmann, E, Wilterdink, JL & Kosinski, A, et al.; Stroke Outcomes and Neuroimaging of Intracranial Atherosclerosis (SONIA) Trial Investigators. The Stroke Outcomes and Neuroimaging of Intracranial Atherosclerosis (SONIA) Trial. Neurology. 2007;68:2099–2106. PubMed

155. Bash, S, Villablanca, JP & Jahan, R, et al. Intracranial vascular stenosis and occlusive disease: evaluation with CT angiography, MR angiography, and digital subtraction angiography. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2005;26:1012–1021. PubMed

156. Nguyen-Huynh, MN, Wintermark, M & English, J, et al. How accurate is CT angiography in evaluating intracranial atherosclerotic disease? Stroke. 2008;39:1184–1188. PubMed

157. Kasner, SE, Lynn, MJ & Chimowitz, MI, et al., for the Warfarin vs Aspirin for Symptomatic Intracranial Disease (WASID) Trial Investigators. Warfarin vs aspirin for symptomatic intracranial stenosis: subgroup analyses from WASID. Neurology. 2006;67:1275–1278. PubMed

158. Kasner, SE, Chimowitz, MI & Lynn, MJ, et al., for the Warfarin–Aspirin Symptomatic Intracranial Disease Trial Investigators. Predictors of ischemic stroke in the territory of a symptomatic intracranial arterial stenosis. Circulation. 2006;113:555–563. PubMed

159. SSYLVIA Study Investigators. Stenting of Symptomatic Atherosclerotic Lesions in the Vertebral or Intracranial Arteries (SSYLVIA): study results. Stroke. 2004;35:1388–1392. PubMed

160. Bose, A, Hartmann, M & Henkes, H, et al. A novel, self-expanding, nitinol stent in medically refractory intracranial atherosclerotic stenoses: the Wingspan study. Stroke. 2007;38:1531–1537. PubMed

161. Mohr, JP, Thompson, JL & Lazar, RM, et al.; Warfarin-Aspirin Recurrent Stroke Study Group. A comparison of warfarin and aspirin for the prevention of recurrent ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1444–1451. PubMed

162. ESPRIT Study Group; Halkes, PH, van Gijn, J, Kappelle, LJ, Koudstaal, PJ & Algra, A. Medium intensity oral anticoagulants versus aspirin after cerebral ischaemia of arterial origin (ESPRIT): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6:115–124. PubMed

163. Go, AS, Hylek, EM & Phillips, KA, et al. Prevalence of diagnosed atrial fibrillation in adults: national implications for rhythm management and stroke prevention: the Anticoagulation and Risk Factors in Atrial Fibrillation (ATRIA) Study. JAMA. 2001;285:2370–2375. PubMed

164. Miyasaka, Y, Barnes, ME & Gersh, BJ, et al. Secular trends in incidence of atrial fibrillation in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1980 to 2000, and implications on the projections for future prevalence. Circulation. 2006;114:119–125. Erratum in: Circulation. 2006;114:e498. PubMed

165. Hart, RG, Pearce, LA & Aguilar, MI. Meta-analysis: antithrombotic therapy to prevent strokes in patients who have nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Ann Intern Med. 2007;146:857–867. PubMed

166. The Stroke Risk in Atrial Fibrillation Working Group. Independent predictors of stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation. A systematic review. Neurology. 2007;69:546–554. PubMed

167. van Walraven, C, Hart, RG & Singer, DE, et al. Oral anticoagulants vs. aspirin in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. An individual patient meta-analysis. JAMA. 2002;288:2441–2448. PubMed

168. Tsivgoulis, G, Spengos, K & Zakapoulos, N, et al. Efficacy of anticoagulation for secondary stroke prevention in older people with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: a prospective case series study. Age Ageing. 2005;34:35–40. PubMed

169. Hart, RG, Tonarelli, SB & Pearce, LA. Avoiding central nervous system bleeding during antithrombotic therapy: recent data and ideas. Stroke. 2005;36:1588–1593. PubMed

170. Akins, PT, Feldman, HA & Zoble, RG, et al. Secondary stroke prevention with ximelagatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation pooled analysis of SPORTIF III and V clinical trials. Stroke. 2007;38:874–880. PubMed

171. Ezekowitz, MD, Reilly, PA & Nehmiz, G, et al. Dabigatran with or without concomitant aspirin compared with warfarin alone in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation (PETRO Study). Am J Cardiol. 2007;100:1419–1426. PubMed

172. Antithrombotic Trialist's Collaboration. Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. BMJ. 2002;324:71–86. PubMed

173. Algra, A & van Gijn, J. Aspirin at any dose above 30 mg offers only modest protection after cerebral ischaemia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1996;60:197–199. PubMed

174. Matias-Guiu, J, Ferro, JM & Alvarez-Sabin, J, et al., for the TACIP investigators. Comparison of triflusal and aspirin for prevention of vascular events in patients after cerebral infarction. The TACIP study: a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study. Stroke. 2003;34:840–848. PubMed

175. Culebras, A, Rotta-Escalante, R & Vila, J, et al.; TAPIRSS investigators. Triflusal vs. aspirin for prevention of cerebral infarction. Neurology. 2004;62:1073–1080. PubMed

176. Hass, WK, Easton, JD & Adams, HP Jr., et al. A randomized trial comparing ticlopidine hydrochloride with aspirin for the prevention of stroke in high-risk patients. Ticlopidine Aspirin Stroke Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:501–507. PubMed

177. Gorelick, PB, Richardson, DJ & Kelly, M, et al., for the AAASPS Investigators. Aspirin and ticlopidine for prevention of recurrent stroke in black patients. A randomized trial. JAMA. 2003;289:2947–2957. PubMed

178. CAPRIE Steering Committee. A randomised, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischaemic events (CAPRIE). Lancet. 1996;348:1329–1339. PubMed

179. Wiviott, SD, Braunwald, E & McCabe, CH, et al.; TRITON-TIMI 38 Investigators. Prasugrel versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:2001–2015. PubMed

180. Diener, HC, Bogousslavsky, J & Brass, LM, on behalf of the MATCH investigators. Aspirin and clopidogrel compared with clopidogrel alone after recent ischaemic stroke or transient ischaemic attack in high-risk patients (MATCH): randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2004;364:331–337. PubMed

181. Bhatt, DL, Fox, KA & Hacke, W, on behalf of the CHARISMA Investigators. Clopidogrel and aspirin versus aspirin alone for the prevention of atherothrombotic events. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:1706–1717. PubMed

182. Diener, HC, Cunha, L, Forbes, C, Sivenius, J, Smets, P & Lowenthal, A. European Stroke Prevention Study 2: dipyridamole and acetylsalicylic acid in the secondary prevention of stroke. J Neurol Sci. 1996;143:1–13. PubMed

183. ESPRIT Study Group. Aspirin plus dipyridamole versus aspirin alone after cerebral ischaemia of arterial origin (ESPRIT): randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2006;367:1665–1673. PubMed

Chapter 8 – Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery (CABG)

1. Bates, B, et al. Veterans Affairs/Department of Defense Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Adult Stroke Rehabilitation Care: executive summary. Stroke. 2005;36(9):2049–2056. PubMed

2. American Heart Association. Heart and Stroke Statistics Update – 2007. Dallas, TX: American Heart Association, 2007.

3. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke – Stroke Rehabilitation Information. 2008. http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/stroke/poststrokerehab.htm#disabilities.

4. Whitson, HE, et al. Adding injury to insult: fracture risk after stroke in veterans. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2006;54(7):1082–1088. PubMed

5. Studenski, SA, et al. Predicting stroke recovery: three- and six-month rates of patient-centered functional outcomes based on the Orpington Prognostic Scale. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2001;49(3):308–312. PubMed

6. Duncan, PW, et al. Similar motor recovery of upper and lower extremities after stroke. Stroke. 1994;25(6):1181–1188. PubMed

7. Bushnell, CD, Lee, J, Duncan, PW, Newby, LK & Goldstein, LB. Impact of comorbidities on ischemic stroke outcomes in women. Stroke. 2008;39(7):2138–2140. PubMed

8. Duncan, P, et al. Randomized clinical trial of therapeutic exercise in subacute stroke. Stroke. 2003;34(9):2173–2180. PubMed

9. Wolf, S, et al. The EXCITE trial: attributes of the Wolf Motor Function Test in patients with subacute stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2005;19(3):194–205. PubMed

10. Eng, J & Tang, P. Gait training strategies to optimize walking ability in people with stroke: a synthesis of the evidence. Expert Rev Neurother. 2007;7(10):1417–1436. PubMed

11. Langhorne, P & Duncan, P. Does the organization of post acute stroke care really matter? Stroke. 2001;32(1):268–274. PubMed

12. Royal College of Physicians National Clinical Guidelines for Stroke. London: Royal College of Physicians, 2002.

13. Gresham, G, et al. Post-stroke rehabilitation. In: P.H.S. US Department of Health and Human Services, eds. Clinical Practice Guideline, No. 16. Rockville, MD: Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, 1995:14–25.

14. Duncan, PW, et al. Management of adult stroke rehabilitation care: a clinical practice guideline. Stroke. 2005;36(9):e100–e143. PubMed

15. Inzitari, D. The Italian guidelines for stroke prevention. The Stroke Prevention and Educational Awareness Diffusion (SPREAD) Collaboration. Neurol Sci. 2000;21:5–12. PubMed

16. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN). Management of Patients with Stroke: Rehabilitation, Prevention and Management of Complications and Discharge Planning, vol. 64. Edinburgh: SIGN, 2002.

17. New Zealand Guidelines Group (NZGG). Life after Stroke. New Zealand Guidelines for Management of Stroke. Stroke Foundation of New Zealand, 2003.

18. Australian National Stroke Foundation. Clinical Guidelines for Stroke Rehabilitation and Recovery. Melbourne: Australian National Stroke Foundation, 2005.

19. Canadian Stroke Network. Canadian Best Practices for Stroke Care. Ottawa: Canadian Stroke Network and the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, 2006.

20. Duncan, PW, et al. Adherence to post acute rehabilitation guidelines is associated with functional recovery in stroke. Stroke. 2002;33(1):167–177. PubMed

21. Teasell, R, Foley, N, Salter, K, Bhogal, S, Jutai, J & Speechley, M. Evidence-based review of stroke rehabilitation ex-ecutive summary (11th ed.) Ontario: Canadian Stroke Network, 2008.

22. Teasell, RW, et al. A blueprint for transforming stroke rehabilitation care in Canada: the case for change. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89(3):575–578. PubMed

23. Brott, T, et al. Measurements of acute cerebral infarction: a clinical examination scale. Stroke. 1989;20(7):864–870. PubMed

24. Martino, R, et al. Validation of the Toronto Bedside Swallowing Screening Test (TOR-BSST©) for Patients with Stroke. Dysphagia Research Society Meeting. Charleston, SC, 2008.

25. Hachinski, V, Iadecola, C & Petersen, RC, et al. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke–Canadian Stroke Network vascular cognitive impairment harmonization standards. Stroke. 2006;37(9):2220–2241. PubMed

26. Gill, DJ, et al. The Montreal cognitive assessment as a screening tool for cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2008;23(7):1043–1046. PubMed

27. McCane, S. Test review: Motor-Free Visual Perception Test. J Psychoeduc Assess. 2006;24:265.

28. Williams, LS, et al. Performance of the PHQ-9 as a screening tool for depression after stroke. Stroke. 2005;36(3):635–638. PubMed

29. Yesavage, JA. Geriatric Depression Scale. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1988;24(4):709–711. PubMed

30. Fugl-Meyer, AR, Jaasko, L & Norlin, V. The post-stroke hemiplegic patient. II. Incidence, mortality, and vocational return in Goteborg, Sweden with a review of the literature. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1975;7(2):73–83. PubMed

31. Gowland, C, et al. Measuring physical impairment and disability with the Chedoke-McMaster Stroke Assessment. Stroke. 1993;24(1):58–63. PubMed

32. Berg, K, Wood-Dauphinee, S & Williams, JI. The Balance Scale: reliability assessment with elderly residents and patients with an acute stroke. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1995;27(1):27–36. PubMed

33. Schmid, A, et al. Improvements in speed-based gait classifications are meaningful. Stroke. 2007;38(7):2096–2100. PubMed

34. Podsiadlo, D & Richardson, S. The timed "Up & Go": a test of basic functional mobility for frail elderly persons. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1991;39(2):142–148. PubMed

35. Granger, CV, et al. Functional assessment scales: a study of persons after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993;74(2):133–138. PubMed

36. Granger, CV & Hamilton, BB. The uniform data system for medical rehabilitation report of first admissions for 1991. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 1993;72(1):33–38. PubMed

37. Mahoney, FI & Barthel, DW. Functional evaluation: the Barthel Index. Md State Med J. 1965;14:61–65. PubMed

38. Lawton, MP & Brody, EM. Assessment of older people: self-maintaining and instrumental activities of daily living. Gerontologist. 1969;9(3):179–186. PubMed

39. Schuling, J, et al. The Frenchay Activities Index. Assessment of functional status in stroke patients. Stroke. 1993;24(8):1173–1177. PubMed

40. Donovan, K, et al. Mobility beyond the clinic: the effect of environment on gait and its measurement in community-ambulant stroke survivors. Clin Rehabil. 2008;22(6):556–563. PubMed

41. Duncan, PW, et al. Rasch analysis of a new stroke-specific outcome scale: the Stroke Impact Scale. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84(7):950–963. PubMed

42. Duncan, PW, et al. Stroke Impact Scale-16: a brief assessment of physical function. Neurology. 2003;60(2):291–296. PubMed

43. Gordon, NF, et al. Physical activity and exercise recommendations for stroke survivors: an American Heart Association scientific statement from the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Subcommittee on Exercise, Cardiac Rehabilitation, and Prevention; the Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism; and the Stroke Council. Stroke. 2004;35(5):1230–1240. PubMed

44. Guideline for the prevention of falls in older persons. American Geriatrics Society, British Geriatrics Society, and American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Panel on Falls Prevention. J Am Geriatr. 2001;49(5):664–672.

45. Fugl-Meyer, AR, et al. The post-stroke hemiplegic patient. 1. A method for evaluation of physical performance. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1975;7(1):13–31. PubMed

46. Bertrand, AM, et al. Reliability of maximal static strength measurements of the arms in subjects with hemiparesis. Clin Rehabil. 2007;21(3):248–257. PubMed

47. Rousseaux, M, et al. [Presenting a battery for assessing spatial neglect. Norms and effects of age, educational level, sex, hand and laterality]. Rev Neurol (Paris). 2001;157(11 part 1):1385–1400. PubMed

Chapter 9 – Lower Extremity Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)

1. Rosamund, W, Flegal, K, Furie, K, Go, AS, Greenlund, K & Haase, N, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics 2008 update: A report from the American Heart Association Committee and Stroke Statistics Committee. Circulation. 2008;117:e25–e146. PubMed

2. Howard, V, Cushman, M, Pulley, L, Gomez, C, Go, R & Prineas, R, et al. The Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke Study: objectives and design. Neuroepidemiology. 2005;25:135–143. PubMed

3. Seshadri, S, Beiser, AS, Kelly-Hayes, M, Kase, C, Au, R & Kannel, WB, et al. The lifetime risk of stroke. Estimates from the Framingham Study. Stroke. 2006;37:345–350. PubMed

4. Labiche, L, Chan, W, Saldin, K & Morgenstern, L. Sex and acute stroke presentation. Ann Emerg Med. 2002;40:453–560. PubMed

5. Smith, MA, Lisabeth, LD, Brown, DL & Morgenstern, LB. Gender comparisons of diagnostic evaluation for ischemic stroke patients. Neurology. 2005;65:855–858. PubMed

6. Di Carlo, A, Lamassa, M, Baldreschi, M, Pracucci, G, Basile, AM & Wolfe, CD, et al. Sex differences in the clinical presentation, resource use, and 3-month outcome of acute stroke in Europe. Data from a Multicenter Multinational Hospital-Based Registry. Stroke. 2003;34:1114–1119. PubMed

7. Patrick, S, Concato, J, Viscoli, C, Chyatte, D & Brass, L. Sex differences in the management of patients hospitalized with ischemic cerebrovascular disease. Stroke. 1995;26:577–580. PubMed

8. Deng, Y, Reevers, M, Jacobs, B, Birbeck, G, Kothari, R & Hickenbottom, S, et al. IV tissue plasminogen activator use in acute stroke: experience from a statewide registry. Neurology. 2006;66:306–312. PubMed

9. Bateman, B, Schumacher, H, Boden-Albala, B, Berman, M, Mohr, J & Sacco, R, et al. Factors associated with in-hospital mortality after administration of thrombolysis in acute ischemic stroke patients. An analysis of the Nationwide Inpatient Sample 1999 to 2002. Stroke. 2006;37:440–446. PubMed

10. Kapral, MK, Fang, J, Hill, MD, Silver, F, Richars, J & Jaigobin, C, et al. Sex differences in stroke care and outcomes. Results from the registry of the Canadian Stroke Network. Stroke. 2005;36:809–814. PubMed

11. Johnston, S, Fung, L, Gillum, L, Smith, U, Brass, L & Lichtman, J, et al. Utilization of intravenous tissue-type plasminogen activator for ischemic stroke at academic medical centers. The influence of ethnicity. Stroke. 2001;32:1061–1068. PubMed

12. Qureshi, A, Suri, M, Nasar, A, He, W, Kirmani, J & Divani, A, et al. Thrombolysis for ischemic stroke in the United States: data from the National Hospital Discharge Survey 1999–2001. Neurosurgery. 2005;57:647–654. PubMed

13. Reid, J, Dai, D, Gubitz, G, Kapral, M, Christian, C & Phillips, S. Gender differences in stroke examined in a 10-year cohort of patients admitted to a Canadian teaching hospital. Stroke. 2008:39:1090–1095. PubMed

14. Kapral, M, Devon, J, Winter, A-L, Wang, J, Peters, A & Bondy, S. Gender differences in stroke care decision-making. Med Care. 2006;44:70–80. PubMed

15. Kent, D, Price, L, Ringleb, P, Hill, MD & Selker, H. Sex-based differences in response to recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in acute ischemic stroke. A pooled analysis of randomized clinical trials. Stroke. 2005;36:62–65. PubMed

16. Adams, H, Adams, R, Brott, T, del Zoppo, G, Furlan, A & Goldstein, LB, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with ischemic stroke. A scientific statement from the Stroke Council of the American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2003;34:1056–1083. PubMed

17. Hankey, GJ, Eikelboom, JW, van Bockxmeer, FM, Lofthouse, E & Baker, RI. Inherited thrombophilia in ischemic stroke and its pathogenic subtypes. Stroke. 2001;32:1793–1799. PubMed

18. Bushnell, CD & Goldstein, LB. Diagnostic testing for coagulopathies in patients with ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2000;31:3067–3078. PubMed

19. Buller, H, Agnelli, G, Hull, R, Hyers, T, Prins, M & Raskob, G. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 2004;126:401–428.

20. De Stefano, V, Martinelli, I, Mannucci, P, Paciaroni, K, Chiusolo, P & Casorelli, I, et al. The risk of recurrent deep venous thrombosis among heterozygous carriers of both factor V Leiden and the G20210A prothrombin mutation. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:801–806. PubMed

21. Sacco, R, Adams, R, Albers, G, Alberts, M, Benavente, O & Furie, K, et al. Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack. Stroke. 2006;37:577–617. PubMed

22. Towfighi, A, Saver, J, Engelhardt, R & Ovbiagele, B. A midlife stroke surge among women in the United States. Neurology. 2007;69:1898–1904. PubMed

23. Rannevik, G, Jeppsson, S, Johnell, O, Bjerre, B & Laurell-BorulfSvanberg, L. A longitudinal study of the perimenopausal transition: altered profiles of steroid and pituitary hormones, SHBG and bone mineral density. Maturitas. 1995;21:103–113. PubMed

24. McKinlay, SM. The normal menopause transition: an overview. Maturitas. 1996;23:137–145. PubMed

25. Liu, Y, Ding, J, Bush, T, Longenecker, JC, Nieto, FJ & Golden, SH, et al. Relative androgen excess and increased cardiovascular risk after menopause: a hypothesized relation. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;154:489–494. PubMed

26. Vermeulen, A. Plasma androgens in women. J Reprod Med. 1998;43:725–733. PubMed

27. Rajkumar, C, Kingwell, BA, Cameron, JD, Waddell, T, Mehra, R & Christophidis, N, et al. Hormonal therapy increases arterial compliance in postmenopausal women. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;30:350–356. PubMed

28. Persico, N, Mancini, F, Artini, P, De Iaco, P, Volpe, A & De Aloysio, D, et al. Transdermal HRT and Doppler findings in normotensive and hypertensive postmenopausal patients. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2005;26:546–551. PubMed

29. Krause, D, Duckles, SP & Pelligrino, DA. The influence of sex steroid hormones on cerebrovascular function. J Appl Physiol. 2006;101:1252–1261. PubMed

30. Spyridopoulos, I, Sullivan, A, Kearney, M, Isner, J & Losordo, D. Estrogen-receptor-mediated inhibition of human endothelial cell apoptosis: estradiol as a survival factor. Circulation. 1997;95:1505–1514. PubMed

31. The Writing Group for the PEPI Trial. Effects of estrogen or estrogen/progestin regimens on heart disease risk factors in postmenopausal women. The Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Interventions (PEPI) Trial. JAMA. 1995;273:199–208. PubMed

32. Haines, C, Chung, T, Chang, A, Masarei, J, Tomlinson, B & Wong, E. Effect of oral estradiol on Lp(a) and other lipoproteins in postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156:866–872. PubMed

33. Matthews, KA, Kuller, LH, Sutton-Tyrrell, K & Chang, Y-F. Changes in cardiovascular risk factors during the perimenopause and postmenopause and carotid artery atherosclerosis in healthy women. Stroke. 2001;32:1104–1111. PubMed

34. Spencer, C, Godsland, I & Stevenson, J. Is there a menopausal metabolic syndrome? Gynecol Endocrinol. 1997;11:341–355. PubMed

35. Pfeilschifter, J, Koditz, R, Pfohl, M & Schatz, H. Changes in proinflammatory cytokine activity after menopause. Endocr Rev. 2002;23:90–119. PubMed

36. Bushnell, CD, Hurn, PD, Colton, C, Miller, VM, del Zoppo, G & Elkind, M, et al. Advancing the study of stroke in women. Summary and recommendations for future research from an NINDS-sponsored multidisciplinary working group. Stroke. 2006;37:2387–2399. PubMed

37. Sutton-Tyrrell, K, Lassila, HC, Meilahn, EN, Bunker, C, Matthews, KA & Kuller, LH. Carotid atherosclerosis in premenopausal and postmenopausal women and its association with risk factors measured after menopause. Stroke. 1998;29:1116–1121. PubMed

38. Matteis, M, Troisi, E, Monaldo, BC, Caltagirone, C & Silvestrini, M. Age and sex differences in cerebral hemodynamics. A transcranial Doppler study. Stroke. 1998;29:963–967. PubMed

39. Hulley, S, Grady, D, Bush, T, Furberg, C, Herrington, D & Riggs, B, et al. Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. JAMA. 1998;280:605–613. PubMed

40. Viscoli, CM, Brass, LM, Kernan, WN, Sarrel, PM, Suissa, S & Horwitz, RI. A clinical trial of estrogen-replacement therapy after ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1243–1249. PubMed

41. Hendrix, SL, Wassertheil-Smoller, S, Johnson, KC, Howard, B, Kooperberg, C & Rossouw, JE, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen on stroke in the Women's Health Initiative. Circulation. 2006;113:2425–2434. PubMed

42. Rossouw, J, Prentice, R, Manson, J, Wu, L, Barad, D & Barnabei, V, et al. postmenopausal hormone therapy and risk of cardiovascular disease by age and years since menopause. JAMA. 2007;297:1465–1477. PubMed

43. Mikkola, T & Clarkson, T. Estrogen replacement therapy, atherosclerosis, and vascular function. Cardiovasc Res. 2002;53:605–619. PubMed

44. The ESHRE Capri Workshop Group. Hormones and cardiovascular health in women. Human Reprod Update. 2006;12:483–497.

45. American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology Task Force on Hormone Therapy. Summary of balancing risks and benefits. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;104:1285–1295.

46. Mosca, L, Banka, C, Benjamin, E, Berra, K, Bushnell, C & Dolor, R, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for cardiovascular disease prevention in women: 2007 update. Circulation. 2007;115:1481–1501. PubMed

47. Roberts, JM, Pearson, G, Cutler, J & Lindheimer, M. Summary of the NHLBI Working Group on research on hypertension during pregnancy. Hypertension. 2003;41:437–445. PubMed

48. Sibai, B, El-Nazer, A & Gonzalez-Ruiz, A. Severe preeclampsia-eclampsia in young primigravid women: subsequent pregnancy outcome and remote prognosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1986;155:1011–1016. PubMed

49. Wilson, BJ, Watson, MS, Prescott, GJ, Sunderland, S, Campbell, DM & Hannaford, P, et al. Hypertensive diseases of pregnancy and risk of hypertension and stroke in later life: results from cohort study. BMJ. 2003;326:845–852. PubMed

50. Brown, DW, Dueker, N, Jamieson, DJ, Cole, JW, Wozniak, M & Stern, BJ, et al. Preeclampsia and the risk of ischemic stroke among young women: results from the Stroke Prevention in Young Women Study. Stroke. 2006;37:1055–1059. PubMed

51. Ray, J, Vermeulen, MJ, Schull, MJ & Redelmeier, DA. Cardiovascular health after maternal placental syndromes (CHAMPS): population-based retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2005;366:1797–1803. PubMed

52. Sattar, N. Do pregnancy complications and CVD share common antecedents? Atherosclerosis. 2004;5(2):3–7. PubMed

53. Sattar, N & Greer, I. Pregnancy complications and maternal cardiovascular risk: opportunities for intervention and screening? BMJ. 2002;325:157–160. PubMed

54. Kernan, W, Viscoli, C, Brass, L, Makuch, R, Sarrel, P & Horwitz, R. Blood pressure exceeding national guidelines among women after stroke. Stroke. 2000;31:415–419. PubMed

55. Keyhani, S, Scobie, J, Hebert, P & McLaughlin, M. Gender disparities in blood pressure control and cardiovascular care in a national sample of ambulatory care visits. Hypertension. 2008;51:1149–1155. PubMed

56. Reckelhoff, J. Gender differences in the regulation of blood pressure. Hypertension. 2001;37:1199–1208. PubMed

57. Okumura, M, Iwai, M, Ide, A, Mogi, M, Ito, M & Horiuchi, M. Sex difference in vascular injury and vasoprotective effect of valsartan are related to differential AT2 receptor expression. Hypertension. 2005;46:589–595.

58. Chobanian, A, Bakris, G, Black, H, Cushman, W, Green, L & Izzo, J, et al. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. The JNC-7 report. JAMA. 2003;289:2560–2572. PubMed

59. Goldstein, L, Adams, R, Alberts, M, Appel, L, Brass, L & Bushnell, C, et al. Primary prevention of ischemic stroke. A guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council. Stroke. 2006;37:1583–1633. PubMed

60. Touze, E & Rothwell, P. Sex differences in heritability of ischemic stroke. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Stroke. 2008;39:16–23. PubMed

61. Lloyd-Jones, D, Leip, E, Larson, M, D'Agostino, R, Beiser, A & Wilson, P, et al. Prediction of lifetime risk for cardiovascular disease by risk factor burden at 50 years of age. Circulation. 2006;113:791–798. PubMed

62. Mosca, L, Linfante, A, Benjamin, E, Berra, K, Hayes, S & Walsh, B, et al. National study of physician awareness and adherence to cardiovascular disease prevention guidelines. Circulation. 2005;111:499–510. PubMed

63. Gargano, J & Reeves, M. Sex differences in stroke recovery and stroke-specific quality of life. Stroke. 2007;38:2541–2548. PubMed

64. Glader, E-L, Stegmayr, B, Norrving, B, Terent, A, Hutler-Asberg, K & Wester, P-O, et al. Sex differences in management and outcome after stroke. A Swedish national perspective. Stroke. 2003;34:1970–1975. PubMed

65. Kelly-Hayes, M, Beiser, AS, Kase, C, Scaramucci, A, D'Agostino, RB & Wolf, PA. The influence of gender and age on disability following ischemic stroke: the Framingham Study. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2003;12:119–126. PubMed

66. Hankey, GJ, Spiesser, J, Hakimi, Z, Bego, G, Carita, P & Gabriel, S. Rate, degree, and predictors of recovery from disability following ischemic stroke. Neurology. 2007;68:1583–1587. PubMed

67. Holroyd-Leduc, JM, Kapral, MK, Austin, PC & Tu, JV. Sex differences and similarities in the management and outcome of stroke patients. Stroke. 2000;31:1833–1837. PubMed

68. Roquer, J, Rodriguez, A & Gomis, M. Sex differences in first-ever acute stroke. Stroke. 2003;34:1581–1585. PubMed

69. Lai, S, Duncan, P, Dew, P & Keighley, J. Sex differences in stroke recovery. Prev Chronic Dis. 2005;2:A13. PubMed

70. Bushnell, C, Lee, J, Duncan, P, Newby, L & Goldstein, L. Impact of comorbidities on ischemic stroke outcomes in women. Stroke. 2008;39:2138–2140. PubMed

71. Duncan, PW, Wallace, D, Lai, SM, Johnson, D, Embretson, S & Laster, LJ. The Stroke Impact Scale Version 2.0: evaluation of reliability, validity, and sensitivity to change. Stroke. 1999;30:2131–2140. PubMed

72. Williams, L, Weinberger, M, Harris, L, Clark, D & Biller, J. Development of a stroke-specific quality of life scale. Stroke. 1999;30:1362–1369. PubMed

73. Paradiso, S & Robinson, R. Gender differences in poststroke depression. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1998;10:41–47. PubMed

74. Eriksson, M, Asplund, K, Glader, E-L, Norrving, B, Stegmayr, B & Terent, A, et al. Self-reported depression and the use of antidepressants after stroke: a national survey. Stroke. 2004;35:936–941. PubMed

75. Herrmann, N, Black, S, Lawrence, J, Szekely, C & Szalai, J. The Sunnybrook Stroke Study. A prospective study of depressive symptoms and functional outcome. Stroke. 1998;29:618–624. PubMed

76. Surtees, P, Wainwright, N, Luben, R, Wareham, N, Bingham, S & Khaw, K-T. Psychological distress, major depressive disorder, and risk of stroke. Neurology. 2008;70:788–794. PubMed

77. Studenski, S, Duncan, P, Perera, S, Reker, D, Lai, S & Richards, L. Daily functioning and quality of life in a randomized controlled trial of therapeutic exercise for subacute stroke survivors. Stroke. 2005;36:1764–1770. PubMed

78. Lai, S, Studenski, S, Richards, L, Pevera, S, Reker, D & Rigler, S, et al. Therapeutic exercise and depressive symptoms after stroke. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2006;54:240–247. PubMed

79. Gordon, N, Gulanick, M, Costa, F, Fletcher, G, Franklin, B & Roth, E, et al. Physical activity and exercise recommendations for stroke survivors. Circulation. 2004;109:2031–2041. PubMed

80. Olney, S, Nymark, J, Brouwer, B, Culham, E, Day, A & Heard, J, et al. A randomized controlled trial of supervised versus unsupervised exercise programs for ambulatory stroke survivors. Stroke. 2006;37:476–481. PubMed

81. Gulati, M, Black, H, Shaw, L, Arnsdorf, M, Merz, C & Lauer, M, et al. The prognostic value of a nomogram for exercise capacity in women. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:468–475. PubMed

Chapter 10 – Cholesterol Management in the Context of Risk Factor Profile

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2. Gorelick, PB, Richardson, D & Kelly, M, et al. Aspirin and ticlopidine for prevention of recurrent stroke in black patients. JAMA. 2003;289:2947–2957. PubMed

3. Pandey, DK & Gorelick, PB. Epidemiology of stroke in African Americans and Hispanic Americans. Med Clin North Am. 2005;89:739–752. PubMed

4. Gillum, RF, Gorelick, PB & Cooper, ES. Stroke in Blacks. A Guide to Management and Prevention. Basel: Karger, 1999.

5. Smedley, BD, Stith, AY & Nelson, AR, eds. Unequal Treatment. Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. Washington, DC: National Academy, 2003.

6. Trimble, B, Hamel, R, Gorelick, P, Horner, R & Longstreth, W. Alaska native stroke registry. Int J Stroke. 2007;2:60–61. PubMed

7. Rosamond, W, Flegal, K & Furie, K, et al.; American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Heart disease and stroke statistics – 2008 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation. 2008;117:e25–e146. PubMed

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14. Howard, G, Labarthe, DR, Hu, J, Yoon, S & Howard, VJ. Regional differences in African Americans' high risk for stroke: the remarkable burden of stroke for Southern African Americans. Ann Epidemiol. 2007;17:689–696. PubMed

15. Howard, G, Prineas, R & Moy, C, et al. Racial and geographic differences in awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension: the Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke study. Stroke. 2006;37:1171–1178. PubMed

16. Glymour, MM, Avendaño, M & Berkman, LF. Is the 'stroke belt' worn from childhood?: risk of first stroke and state of residence in childhood and adulthood. Stroke. 2007;38:2415–2421. PubMed

17. Fullerton, HJ, Elkins, JS & Johnston, SC. Pediatric stroke belt: geographic variation in stroke mortality in US children. Stroke. 2004;35:1570–1573. PubMed

18. Kleindorfer, D, Broderick, J & Khoury, J, et al. The unchanging incidence and case-fatality of stroke in the 1990s: a population-based study. Stroke. 2006;37:2473–2478. PubMed

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22. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Department of Health and Human Services. Regional and racial differences in prevalence of stroke – 23 states and District of Columbia, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005;54(19):481–484. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5419a3.htm. Accessed January 30, 2008. PubMed

23. Howard, G, Wagenknecht, LE, Cai, J, Cooper, L, Kraut, MA & Toole, JF. Cigarette smoking and other risk factors for silent cerebral infarction in the general population. Stroke. 1998;29:913–917. PubMed

24. Prabhakaran, S, Wright, CB & Yoshita, M, et al. The prevalence and determinants of subclinical brain infarction. The Northern Manhattan Study. Neurology. 2008;70:425–430. PubMed

25. Rosamond, WD, Folsom, AR & Chambless, LE, et al. Stroke incidence and survival among middle-aged adults 9-year follow-up of the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) cohort. Stroke. 1999;30:736–743. PubMed

26. White, H, Boden-Albala, B & Wang, C, et al. Ischemic stroke subtype incidence among whites, blacks, and Hispanics: the Northern Manhattan Study. Circulation. 2005;111:1327–1331. PubMed

27. Sacco, RL, Boden-Albala, B & Gan, R, et al. Stroke incidence among white, black, and Hispanic residents of an urban community: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1998;147:259–268. PubMed

28. Rosamond, W, Flegal, K & Friday, G, et al.; American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Heart disease and stroke statistics – 2007 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation. 2007;115:e69–e171. PubMed

29. Kittner, SJ, McCarter, RJ & Sherwin, RW, et al. Black-white differences in stroke risk among young adults. Stroke. 1993;24(Suppl. 12):I13–I15.

30. Sacco, RL, Boden-Albala, B & Abel, G, et al. Race-ethnic disparities in the impact of stroke risk factors: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Stroke. 2001;32:1725–1731. PubMed

31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Department of Health and Human Services. Racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in multiple risk factors for heart disease and stroke – United States, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005;54(05):113–117. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5405a1.htm. Accessed January 29, 2008. PubMed

32. Miniño, AM, Heron, MP, Murphy, SL & Kochanek, KD; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Health Statistics National Vital Statistics System. Deaths: final data for 2004. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2007;55(19):1–119. PubMed

33. National Center for Health Statistics, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Department of Health and Human Services. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among adults: United States, 2003-2004. 2006. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/overweight/overwght_adult_03.htm. Accessed January 20, 2008.

34. Suk, SH, Sacco, RL & Boden-Albala, B, et al.; Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Abdominal obesity and risk of ischemic stroke: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Stroke. 2003;34:1586–1592. PubMed

35. Ruland, S, Hung, E, Richardson, D, Misra, S & Gorelick, PB; African-American Antiplatelet Stroke Prevention Study Investigators. Impact of obesity and the metabolic syndrome on risk factors in African American stroke survivors: a report from the AAASPS. Arch Neurol. 2005;62:386–390. PubMed

36. Lynch, GF & Gorelick, PB. Stroke in African Americans. Neurol Clin. 2000;18:273–290. PubMed

37. Kleindorfer, DO, Lindsell, C & Broderick, J, et al. Impact of socioeconomic status on stroke incidence: a population-based study. Ann Neurol. 2006;60:480–484. PubMed

38. U.S. Census Bureau, Housing and Household Economic Statistics Division. US Department of Commerce. Income, poverty and health insurance in the United States: 2006. 2007. Available at: http://www.census.gov/prod/2007pubs/p60-233.pdf. Accessed February 5, 2008.

39. Fox, ER, Alnabhan, N & Penman, AD, et al. Echocardiographic left ventricular mass index predicts incident stroke in African Americans: Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Stroke. 2007;38:2686–2691. PubMed

40. Ruland, S, Richardson, D & Hung, E, et al.; AAASPS Investigators. Predictors of recurrent stroke in African Americans. Neurology. 2006;67:567–571. PubMed

41. Worrall, BB, Johnston, KC, Kongable, G, Hung, E, Richardson, D & Gorelick, PB. Stroke risk factor profiles in African American women: an interim report from the African-American Antiplatelet Stroke Prevention Study. Stroke. 2002;33:913–919. PubMed

42. Sloan, MA, Kittner, SJ & Feeser, BR, et al. Illicit drug-associated ischemic stroke in the Baltimore-Washington Young Stroke Study. Neurology. 1998;50:1688–1693. PubMed

43. Rodriguez, CJ, Homma, S, Sacco, RL, Di Tullio, MR, Sciacca, RR & Mohr, JP; PICSS Investigators. Race-ethnic differences in patent foramen ovale, atrial septal aneurysm, and right atrial anatomy among ischemic stroke patients. Stroke. 2003;34:2097–2102. PubMed

44. Kittner, SJ, Giles, WH & Macko, RF, et al. Homocyst(e)ine and risk of cerebral infarction in a biracial population: the stroke prevention in young women study. Stroke. 1999;30:1554–1560. PubMed

45. Brey, RL, Stallworth, CL & McGlasson, DL, et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and stroke in young women. Stroke. 2002;33:2396–2400. PubMed

46. Jerrard-Dunne, P, Evans, A & McGovern, R, et al. Ethnic differences in markers of thrombophilia: implications for the investigation of ischemic stroke in multiethnic populations: the South London Ethnicity and Stroke Study. Stroke. 2003;34:1821–1826. PubMed

47. Kittner, SJ, Stern, BJ & Feeser, BR, et al. Pregnancy and the risk of stroke. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:768–774. PubMed

48. James, AH, Bushnell, CD, Jamison, MG & Myers, ER. Incidence and risk factors for stroke in pregnancy and the puerperium. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106:509–516. PubMed

49. Schneider, AT, Kissela, B & Woo, D, et al. Ischemic stroke subtypes: a population-based study of incidence rates among blacks and whites. Stroke. 2004;35:1552–1556. PubMed

50. Friday, G, Lai, SM & Alter, M, et al. Stroke in the Lehigh Valley: racial/ethnic differences. Neurology. 1989;39:1165–1168. PubMed

51. Gross, CR, Kase, CS, Mohr, JP, Cunningham, SC & Baker, WE. Stroke in south Alabama: incidence and diagnostic features – a population based study. Stroke 1984;15:249–255. PubMed

52. Gorelick, PB, Caplan, LR, Hier, DB, Parker, SL & Patel, D. Racial differences in the distribution of anterior circulation occlusive disease. Neurology. 1984;4:54–59.

53. Gorelick, PB, Caplan, LR & Hier, DB, et al. Racial differences in the distribution of posterior circulation occlusive disease. Stroke. 1985;16:785–790. PubMed

54. Bogousslavsky, J, Barnett, HJ, Fox, AJ, Hachinski, VC & Taylor, W. Racial differences in the distribution of posterior circulation occlusive disease. Stroke. 1985;16:785–790. PubMed

55. Wityk, RJ, Lehman, D, Klag, M, Coresh, J, Ahn, H & Litt, B. Race and sex differences in the distribution of cerebral atherosclerosis. Stroke. 1996;27:1974–1980. PubMed

56. Markus, HS, Khan, U & Birns, J, et al. Differences in stroke subtypes between black and white patients with stroke: the South London Ethnicity and Stroke Study. Circulation. 2007;116:2099–2100. PubMed

57. Li, H & Wong, KS. Racial distribution of intracranial and extracranial atherosclerosis. J Clin Neurosci. 2003;10:30–34. PubMed

58. Burke, GL & Howard, G. Ethnic differences in cerebral atherosclerosis. In: Gillum, R, Gorelick, PB & Cooper, E, eds. Stroke in Blacks. A Guide to Management and Prevention. Basel: S. Karger AG, 1999: 94–105.

59. Gorelick, PB & Bowler, JV. Advance in stroke 2007: vascular cognitive impairment. Stroke. 2008;39(2):279–282. PubMed

60. Gorelick, PB. Prevention. In: Bowler, JV & Hachinski, V, eds. Vascular Cognitive Impairment. Preventable Dementia. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003: 308–320.

61. Gorelick, PB, Nyenhuis, DL, Garron, DC & Cochran, E. Is vascular dementia really Alzheimer's disease or mixed dementia? Neuroepidemiology. 1996;15:286–290. PubMed

62. Gorelick, PB & Griffith, P. Late sequelae of cerebrovascular disease in African Americans: vascular dementia. In: Gillum, RF, Gorelick, PB & Cooper, ES, eds. Stroke in Blacks. Basel: Karger, 1999: 188–197.

63. Gorelick, PB. Risk factors for vascular dementia and Alzheimer disease. Stroke. 2004;35(Suppl. I):2620–2622. PubMed

64. Gorelick, PB & William, M. Feinberg lecture: cognitive vitality and the role of stroke and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Stroke. 2005;36:875–879. PubMed

65. Gorelick, PB, Brody, J & Cohen, D, et al. Risk factors for dementia associated with multiple cerebral infarcts. A case-control analysis in predominantly African-American hospital-based patients. Arch Neurol. 1993;50:714–720. PubMed

66. Gorelick, PB, Chatterjee, A & Patel, D, et al. Cranial computed tomographic observations in multi-infarct dementia. A controlled study. Stroke. 1992;23:804–811. PubMed

67. Gorelick, PB, Freels, S, Harris, Y, Dollear, T, Billingsley, M & Brown, N. Epidemiology of vascular and Alzheimer's dementia among African Americans in Chicago, Illinois: baseline frequency and comparison of risk factors. Neurology. 1994;44:1391–1396. PubMed

68. Pytel, P, Cochran, E, Bonner, G, Nyenhuis, DL, Thomas, C & Gorelick, PB. Vascular and Alzheimer-type pathology in an autopsy study of African Americans. Neurology. 2006;66:433–435. PubMed

69. Charletta, D, Gorelick, PB, Dollear, TJ, Freels, S & Harris, Y. CT and MRI findings among African Americans with Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia and stroke without dementia. Neurology. 1995;45:1456–1461. PubMed

70. Nyenhuis, DL & Gorelick, PB. Diagnosis and management of vascular cognitive impairment. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2007;9(4):326–332. PubMed

71. Nyenhuis, DL & Gorelick, PB. Diagnosis and management of vascular cognitive impairment. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2007;9:326–332. PubMed

72. Leblanc, GG, Meschia, JJ, Stuss, DT & Hachinski, V. Genetics of vascular cognitive impairment: the opportunity and the challenges. Stroke. 2006;37:248–255. PubMed

73. Hachinski, V. Stroke and vascular cognitive impairment. A transdisciplinary, translational and transactional approach. Stroke. 2007;38:1396–1403. PubMed

74. Hachinski, V, Iadecola, C & Petersen, RC, et al. National Institutes of Neurological Disorders and Stroke-Canadian Stroke Network Vascular Cognitive Impairment Harmonization Standards. Stroke. 2006;37:2220–2241. PubMed

75. Sink, KM, Holden, KF & Yaffe, K. Pharmacological treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia. A review of the evidence. JAMA. 2005;293:596–608. PubMed

76. Horner, RD, Matchar, DB, Divine, GW & Feussner, JR. Racial variations in ischemic stroke-related physical and functional impairments. Stroke. 1991;22:1497–1501. PubMed

77. Jones, MR, Horner, RD & Edwards, LJ, et al. Racial variation in initial stroke severity. Stroke. 2000;31:563–567. PubMed

78. Horner, RD, Swanson, JW, Bosworth, HB & Matchar, DB; VA Acute Stroke (VAST) Study Team. Effects of race and poverty on the process and outcome of inpatient rehabilitation services among stroke patients. Stroke. 2003;34:1027–1031. PubMed

79. Hassaballa, H, Gorelick, PG, West, CP, Hansen, MD & Adams, HP Jr. Ischemic stroke outcome. Racial differences in the trial of danaparoid in acute stroke (TOAST). Neurology. 2001;57:691–697. PubMed

80. Capes, SE, Hunt, D, Malmberg, K, Pathak, P & Gerstein, HC. Stress hyperglycemia and prognosis of stroke in nondiabetic and diabetic patients: a systematic overview. Stroke. 2001;32:2426–2432. PubMed

81. Alvarez-Sabín, J, Molina, CA & Montaner, J, et al. Effects of admission hyperglycemia on stroke outcome in reperfused tissue plasminogen activator-treated patients. Stroke. 2003;34:1235–1241. PubMed

82. Sharma, JC, Fletcher, S, Vassallo, M & Ross, I. Cardiovascular disease and outcome of acute stroke: influence of pre-existing cardiac failure. Eur J Heart Fail. 2000;2:145–150. PubMed

83. Razinia, T, Saver, JL, Liebeskind, DS, Ali, LK, Buck, B & Ovbiagele, B. Body mass index and hospital discharge outcomes after ischemic stroke. Arch Neurol. 2007;64:388–391. PubMed

84. Stebbins, GT, Nyenhuis, DL, Wang, C, Cox, JL, Freels, S & Bangen, K, et al. Gray matter atrophy in patients with ischemic stroke with cognitive impairment. Stroke. 2008;39:785–793. PubMed

85. Harper, S, Lynch, J, Burris, S & Smith, DG. Trends in the black-white life expectancy gap in the United States, 1983-2003. JAMA. 2007;297:1224–1232. PubMed

86. Giles, T, Aranda, JM & Suh, D-C, et al. Ethnic/racial variations in blood pressure awareness, treatment and control. J Clin Hypertens. 2007;9:345–354.

87. Shen, JJ & Washington, EL. Disparities in outcomes among patients with stroke associated with insurance status. Stroke. 2007;38:1010–1016. PubMed

88. Popescu, I, Vaughan-Sarrazin, MS & Rosenthal, GE. Differences in mortality and use of revascularization in black and white patients with acute MI admitted to hospitals with and without revascularization services. JAMA. 2007;297:2489–2495. PubMed

89. Oddone, EZ, Horner, RD, Monger, ME & Matchar, DE. Racial variations in the rates of carotid angiography and endarterectomy in patients with stroke and transient ischemic attack. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153:2781–2786. PubMed

90. Harris, Y, Gorelick, PB, Samuels, P & Bempong, I. Why African Americans may not be participating in clinical trials. J Natl Med Assoc. 1996;88:630–634. PubMed

91. Smith, WR, Betancourt, JR & Wynia, MK, et al. Recommendations for teaching about racial and ethnic disparities in health and health care. Ann Intern Med. 2007;147:654–665. PubMed

92. Gorelick, PB, Leurgans, S & Richardson, D, et al. African-American Antiplatelet Stroke Prevention Study. Clinical trial design. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 1998;7:426–434. PubMed

93. Gorelick, PB, Harris, Y, Burnett, B & Bonecutter, FJ. The recruitment triangle: reasons why African Americans enroll, refuse to enroll, or voluntarily withdraw from a clinical trial. An interim report from the African-American Antiplatelet Stroke Prevention Study (AAASPS). J Natl Med Assoc. 1998;90:141–145. PubMed

94. Gorelick, PB, Richardson, D & Hudson, E, et al. Establishing a community network for recruitment of African Americans into a clinical trial. The African-American Antiplatlet Stroke Prevention Study (AAASPS) experience. J Natl Med Assoc. 1996;88:701–704. PubMed

95. Gorelick, PB, Sechenova, O & Hennekens, CH. Evolving perspectives on clopidogrel in the treatment of ischemic stroke. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2006;11:245–248. PubMed

96. Wang, R, Lagakos, SW, Ware, JH, Hunter, KJ & Drazen, JM. Statistics in medicine-reporting of subgroup analyses in clinical trials. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:2189–2194. PubMed

97. Adams, RJ, McKie, VC & Hsu, L, et al. Prevention of a first stroke by transfusions in children with sickle cell anemia and abnormal results on transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:5–11. PubMed

98. Adams, R, McKie, V & Nichols, F, et al. The use of transcranial ultrasonography to predict stroke in sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:605–610. PubMed

•  Adams, RJ & Brambilla, D; Optimizing Primary Stroke Prevention In Sickle Cell Anemia (STOP 2) Trial Investigators. Discontinuing prophylactic transfusions to prevent stroke in sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:2769–2277. PubMed

100. Adams, RJ. Big strokes in small persons. Arch Neurol. 2007;64:1567–1574. PubMed

101. Goldstein, LB, Adams, R & Alberts, MJ, et al. Primary prevention of ischemic stroke. A guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council. Stroke. 2006;37:1583–1633. PubMed

102. Sacco, RL, Adams, R & Albers, G, et al. Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Council on Stroke. Stroke. 2006;37:577–617. PubMed

Chapter 11 – Hypertension

1. Murphy, SL. Deaths: final data for 1998. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2000;48(11):1–105. PubMed

2. Fullerton, HJ, Chetkovich, DM, Wu, YW, Smith, WS & Johnston, SC. Deaths from stroke in US children, 1979 to 1998. Neurology. 2002;59(1):34–39. PubMed

3. Lynch, JK, Hirtz, DG, deVeber, G & Nelson, KB. Report of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke workshop on perinatal and childhood stroke. Pediatrics. 2002;109(1):116–123. PubMed

4. Lo, W, Zamel, K & Ponnappa, K, et al. The cost of pediatric stroke care and rehabilitation. Stroke. 2008;39(1):161–165. PubMed

5. deVeber, G, MacGregor, D, Curtis, R & Mayank, S. Neurologic outcome in survivors of childhood arterial ischemic stroke and sinovenous thrombosis. J Child Neurol. 2000;15(5):316–324. PubMed

6. Chabrier, S, Husson, B, Lasjaunias, P, Landrieu, P & Tardieu, M. Stroke in childhood: outcome and recurrence risk by mechanism in 59 patients. J Child Neurol. 2000;15(5):290–294. PubMed

7. De Schryver, EL, Kappelle, LJ, Jennekens-Schinkel, A & Boudewyn Peters, AC. Prognosis of ischemic stroke in childhood: a long-term follow-up study. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;42(5):313–318. PubMed

8. Rafay, MF, Pontigon, AM & Chiang, J, et al. Delay to diagnosis in acute pediatric arterial ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2008 (Epub ahead of print). PubMed

9. Shellhaas, RA, Smith, SE, O'Tool, E, Licht, DJ & Ichord, RN. Mimics of childhood stroke: characteristics of a prospective cohort. Pediatrics. 2006;118(2):704–709. PubMed

10. Zimmer, JA, Garg, BP, Williams, LS & Golomb, MR. Age-related variation in presenting signs of childhood arterial ischemic stroke. Pediatr Neurol. 2007;37(3):171–175. PubMed

11. Barnes, C & deVeber, G. Prothrombotic abnormalities in childhood ischaemic stroke. Thromb Res. 2006;118(1):67–74. PubMed

12. Domi, T, Edgell, DS & McCrindle, BW, et al. Frequency predictors, and neurological outcome of vaso-occlusive strokes associated with cardiac surgery in children. Pediatrics. 2008;122(6):1292–1298. PubMed

13. Ganesan, V, Prengler, M, McShane, MA, Wade, AM & Kirkham, FJ. Investigation of risk factors in children with arterial ischemic stroke. Ann Neurol. 2003;53(2):167–173. PubMed

14. Amlie-Lefond, C, Sebire, G & Fullerton, HJ. Recent developments in childhood arterial ischaemic stroke. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(5):425–435. PubMed

15. Sebire, G. Transient cerebral arteriopathy in childhood. Lancet. 2006;368(9529):8–10. PubMed

16. Strater, R, Becker, S & von Eckardstein, A, et al. Prospective assessment of risk factors for recurrent stroke during childhood – a 5-year follow-up study. Lancet. 2002;360(9345):1540–1545. PubMed

17. Roach, ES, Golomb, MR & Adams, R, et al. Management of stroke in infants and children: a scientific statement from a Special Writing Group of the American Heart Association Stroke Council and the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young. Stroke. 2008;39(9):2644–2691. PubMed

18. Maguire, JL, deVeber, G & Parkin, PC. Association between iron-deficiency anemia and stroke in young children. Pediatrics. 2007;120(5):1053–1057. PubMed

19. Lanthier, S, Kirkham, FJ & Mitchell, LG, et al. Increased anticardiolipin antibody IgG titers do not predict recurrent stroke or TIA in children. Neurology. 2004;62(2):194–200. PubMed

20. andrew, M & deVeber, G. Pediatric Thromboembolism and Stroke Protocols, 2nd ed. (1st ed., 1997). Hamilton, Canada: B.C. Decker Inc., 1999.

21. Monagle, P, Chalmers, E & Chan, A, et al. Antithrombotic therapy in neonates and children: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th ed.). Chest. 2008;133(Suppl. 6):887S–968S. PubMed

22. "UK" Paediatric Stroke Working Group. Stroke in Childhood: Clinical Guidelines for Diagnosis Management and Rehabilitation. Royal College of Physicians of London (UK), 2004. http://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/pubs/books/childstroke.

23. deVeber, G. In pursuit of evidence-based treatments for paediatric stroke: the UK and Chest guidelines. Lancet Neurol. 2005;4(7):432–436. PubMed

24. Adams, RJ, McKie, VC & Hsu, L, et al. Prevention of a first stroke by transfusions in children with sickle cell anemia and abnormal results on transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. N Engl J Med. 1998;339(1):5–11. PubMed

25. International multi centre randomized clinical trial of anticoagulation in children following Fontan procedures. 2008. Available at: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00182104. Accessed August 15, 2008.

26. Strater, R, Kurnik, K, Heller, C, Schobess, R, Luigs, P & Nowak-Goettl, U. Aspirin versus low-dose low-molecular-weight heparin: antithrombotic therapy in pediatric ischemic stroke patients: a prospective follow-up study. Stroke. 2001;32(11):2554–2558. PubMed

27. Taub, E & Morris, DM. Constraint-induced movement therapy to enhance recovery after stroke. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2001;3(4):279–286. PubMed

28. Kirton, A, Chen, R, Friefeld, S, Gunraj, C, Pontigon, AM & deVeber, G. Contralesional repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for chronic hemiparesis in subcortical paediatric stroke: a randomised trial. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(6):507–513. PubMed

29. International Pediatric Stroke Study website. 2008. Available at: https://app3.ccb.sickkids.ca/cstrokestudy/.

30. Golomb, MR, Fullerton, HJ, Nowak-Gottl, U & deVeber, G. Male predominance in childhood ischemic stroke. Findings from the International Pediatric Stroke Study. Stroke. 2008 (Epub ahead of print).

Chapter 12 – CVD Prevention in Women

1. Sacco, RL, Adams, R & Albers, G, et al. Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attacks: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Council on Stroke. Stroke. 2006;37:577–617. PubMed

2. Davidson, CJ, Tuddenham, EG & McVey, JH. 450 million years of hemostasis. J Thromb Haemost. 2003;1:1487–1494. PubMed

3. Krem, MM & Di Cera, E. Evolution of enzyme cascades from embryonic development to blood coagulation. Trends Biochem Sci. 2002;27:67–74. PubMed

4. Abi-Rached, L, Gilles, A, Shiina, T, Pontarotti, P & Inoko, H. Evidence of en bloc duplication in vertebrate genomes. Nat Genet. 2002;31:100–105. PubMed

5. Hanumanthaiah, R, Day, K & Jagadeeswaran, P. Comprehensive analysis of blood coagulation pathways in teleostei: evolution of coagulation factor genes and identification of zebrafish factor VIIi. Blood Cells Mol Dis. 2002;29:57–68. PubMed

6. Ginsburg, D. Identifying novel genetic determinants of hemostatic balance. J Thromb Haemost. 2005;3:1561–1568. PubMed

7. Jiang, Y & Doolittle, RF. The evolution of vertebrate blood coagulation as viewed from a comparison of puffer fish and sea squirt genomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003;100:7527–7532. PubMed

8. Monroe, DM & Hoffman, M. What does it take to make the perfect clot? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006;26:41–48. PubMed

9. Mann, KG, Brummel-Ziedins, K, Undas, A & Butenas, S. Does the genotype predict the phenotype? Evaluations of the hemostatic proteome. J Thromb Haemost. 2004;2:1727–1734. PubMed

10. Becker, RC. Atherothrombosis at a distance: contributing role of existing large-burden vascular disease, circulating biosignals and modulating extravascular tissues. Thromb Res. 2007;119:761–768. PubMed

11. Croce, K & Libby, P. Intertwining of thrombosis and inflammation in atherosclerosis. Curr Opin Hematol. 2007;14:55–61. PubMed

12. Mann, KG. Adding the vessel wall to Virchow's triad. J Thromb Haemost. 2006;4:58–59. PubMed

13. Kardasz, I & De Caterina, R. Myocardial infarction with normal coronary arteries: a conundrum with multiple aetiologies and variable prognosis: an update. J Intern Med. 2007;261:330–348. PubMed

14. Bogdanov, VY, Balasubramanian, V, Hathcock, J, Vele, O, Lieb, M & Nemerson, Y. Alternatively spliced human tissue factor: a circulating, soluble, thrombogenic protein. Nat Med. 2003;9:458–462. PubMed

15. Pathak, A, Zhao, R & Monroe, DM, et al. Thrombin generation in vascular tissue. J Thromb Haemost. 2006;4:60–67. PubMed

16. Aird, WC. Vascular bed-specific thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost. 2007;5(Suppl. 1):S283–S291.

17. Feinbloom, D & Bauer, KA. Assessment of hemostatic risk factors in predicting arterial thrombotic events. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:2043–2053. PubMed

18. Chatzizisis, YS, Coskun, AU, Jonas, M, Edelman, ER, Feldman, CL & Stone, PH. Role of endothelial shear stress in the natural history of coronary atherosclerosis and vascular remodeling: molecular, cellular, and vascular behavior. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:2379–2393. PubMed

19. Crowther, MA & Ginsberg, JS. Arterial thromboembolism. In: Hoffman, R, ed. Hematology: Basic Principles and Practice, 4th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 2005: Chapter 129.

20. Maresca, G, Di Blasio, A, Marchioli, R & Di Minno, G. Measuring plasma fibrinogen to predict stroke and myocardial infarction: an update. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1999;19:1368–1377. PubMed

21. Voetsch, B & Loscalzo, J. Genetic determinants of arterial thrombosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004;24:216–229. PubMed

22. Brown, ET & Fuller, GM. Detection of a complex that associates with the B-beta fibrinogen G-455-A polymorphism. Blood. 1998;92:3286–3293. PubMed

23. Carter, AM, Mansfield, MW, Stickland, MH & Grant, PJ. Beta-fibrinogen gene-455 G/A polymorphism and fibrinogen levels. Risk factors for coronary artery disease in subjects with NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1996;19:1265–1268. PubMed

24. de Maat, MP, Kastelein, JJ & Jukema, JW, et al. -455G/A polymorphism of the beta-fibrinogen gene is associated with the progression of coronary atherosclerosis in symptomatic men: proposed role for an acute-phase reaction pattern of fibrinogen. REGRESS group. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1998;18:265–271. PubMed

25. Folsom, AR, Aleksic, N, Ahn, C, Boerwinkle, E & Wu, KK. Beta-fibrinogen gene-455G/A polymorphism and coronary heart disease incidence: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Ann Epidemiol. 2001;11:166–170. PubMed

26. Gardemann, A, Schwartz, O & Haberbosch, W, et al. Positive association of the beta fibrinogen H1/H2 gene variation to basal fibrinogen levels and to the increase in fibrinogen concentration during acute phase reaction but not to coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction. Thromb Haemost. 1997;77:1120–1126. PubMed

27. Wang, XL, Wang, J, McCredie, RM & Wilcken, DE. Polymorphisms of factor V, factor VII, and fibrinogen genes. Relevance to severity of coronary artery disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997;17:246–251. PubMed

28. Zito, F, Di Castelnuovo, A, Amore, C, D'Orazio, A, Donati, MB & Iacoviello, L. Bcl I polymorphism in the fibrinogen beta-chain gene is associated with the risk of familial myocardial infarction by increasing plasma fibrinogen levels. A case-control study in a sample of GISSI-2 patients. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997;17:3489–3494. PubMed

29. Endler, GF & Mannhalter, C. Polymorphisms in coagulation factor genes and their impact on arterial and venous thrombosis. Clinica Chimica Acta. 2003;330:31–55.

30. Martiskainen, M, Pohjasvaara, T & Mikkelsson, J, et al. Fibrinogen gene promoter -455 A allele as a risk factor for lacunar stroke. Stroke. 2003;34:886–891. PubMed

31. Standeven, KF, Grant, PJ, Carter, AM, Scheiner, T, Weisel, JW & Ariens, RA. Functional analysis of the fibrinogen Aalpha Thr312Ala polymorphism: effects on fibrin structure and function. Circulation. 2003;107:2326–2330. PubMed

32. Carter, AM, Catto, AJ & Grant, PJ. Association of the alpha-fibrinogen Thr312Ala polymorphism with poststroke mortality in subjects with atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 1999;99:2423–2426. PubMed

33. Kim, RJ & Becker, RC. Association between factor V Leiden, prothrombin G20210A, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase C677T mutations and events of the arterial circulatory system: a meta-analysis of published studies. Am Heart J. 2003;146:948–957. PubMed

34. Reiner, AP, Siscovick, DS & Rosendaal, FR. Hemostatic risk factors and arterial thrombotic disease. Thromb Haemost. 2001;85:584–595. PubMed

35. Margaglione, M, D'Andrea, G & Giuliani, N, et al. Inherited prothrombotic conditions and premature ischemic stroke: sex difference in the association with factor V Leiden. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1999;19:1751–1756. PubMed

36. Nowak-Gottl, U, Strater, R & Heinecke, A, et al. Lipoprotein (a) and genetic polymorphisms of clotting factor V, prothrombin, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase are risk factors of spontaneous ischemic stroke in childhood. Blood. 1999;94:3678–3682. PubMed

37. Atasay, B, Arsan, S, Gunlemez, A, Kemahli, S & Akar N. Factor, V Leiden and prothrombin gene 20210A variant in neonatal thromboembolism and in healthy neonates and adults: a study in a single center. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2003;20:627–634. PubMed

38. Bushnell, CD & Goldstein, LB. Diagnostic testing for coagulopathies in patients with ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2000;31:3067–3078. PubMed

39. Goldstein, LB, Adams, R & Alberts, MJ, et al. Primary prevention of ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council. Stroke. 2006;37:1583–1633. PubMed

40. Ariens, RA, Philippou, H, Nagaswami, C, Weisel, JW, Lane, DA & Grant, PJ. The factor XIII V34L polymorphism accelerates thrombin activation of factor XIII and affects cross-linked fibrin structure. Blood. 2000;96:988–995. PubMed

41. Kangsadalampai, S & Board, PG. The Val34Leu polymorphism in the A subunit of coagulation factor XIII contributes to the large normal range in activity and demonstrates that the activation peptide plays a role in catalytic activity. Blood. 1998;92:2766–2770. PubMed

42. Salomaa, V, Matei, C & Aleksic, N, et al. Soluble thrombomodulin as a predictor of incident coronary heart disease and symptomless carotid artery atherosclerosis in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study: a case-cohort study. Lancet. 1999;353:1729–1734. PubMed

43. Norlund, L, Holm, J, Zoller, B & Ohlin, AK. A common thrombomodulin amino acid dimorphism is associated with myocardial infarction. Thromb Haemost. 1997;77:248–251. PubMed

44. Doggen, CJ, Kunz, G & Rosendaal, FR, et al. A mutation in the thrombomodulin gene, 127G to A coding for Ala25Thr, and the risk of myocardial infarction in men. Thromb Haemost. 1998;80:743–748. PubMed

45. Toren, K, Bergdahl, IA, Nilsson, T & Jarvholm, B. Occupational exposure to particulate air pollution and mortality due to ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease. Occup Environ Med. 2007;64:515–519. PubMed

46. Arnaud, E, Barbalat, V & Nicaud, V, et al. Polymorphisms in the 5' regulatory region of the tissue factor gene and the risk of myocardial infarction and venous thromboembolism: the ECTIM and PATHROS studies. Etude Cas-Témoins de l'Infarctus du Myocarde. Paris Thrombosis case-control study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000;20:892–898. PubMed

47. Burzotta, F, Di Castelnuovo, A & Amore, C, et al. 4G/5G promoter PAI-1 gene polymorphism is associated with plasmatic PAI-1 activity in Italians: a model of gene-environment interaction. Thromb Haemost. 1998;79:354–358. PubMed

48. Dawson, SJ, Wiman, B, Hamsten, A, Green, F, Humphries, S & Henney, AM. The two allele sequences of a common polymorphism in the promoter of the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) gene respond differently to interleukin-1 in HepG2 cells. J Biol Chem. 1993;268:10739–10745. PubMed

49. Eriksson, P, Kallin, B, van't Hooft, FM, Bavenholm, P & Hamsten, A. Allele-specific increase in basal transcription of the plasminogen-activator inhibitor 1 gene is associated with myocardial infarction. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995;92:1851–1855. PubMed

50. Gardemann, A, Lohre, J, Katz, N, Tillmanns, H, Hehrlein, FW & Haberbosch, W. The 4G4G genotype of the plasminogen activator inhibitor 4G/5G gene polymorphism is associated with coronary atherosclerosis in patients at high risk for this disease. Thromb Haemost. 1999;82:1121–1126. PubMed

51. Iwai, N, Shimoike, H, Nakamura, Y, Tamaki, S & Kinoshita, M. The 4G/5G polymorphism of the plasminogen activator inhibitor gene is associated with the time course of progression to acute coronary syndromes. Atherosclerosis. 1998;136:109–114. PubMed

52. Mansfield, MW, Stickland, MH & Grant, PJ. Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) promoter polymorphism and coronary artery disease in non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Thromb Haemost. 1995;74:1032–1034. PubMed

53. Margaglione, M, Cappucci, G & Colaizzo, D, et al. The PAI-1 gene locus 4G/5G polymorphism is associated with a family history of coronary artery disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1998;18:152–156. PubMed

54. Catto, AJ, Carter, AM, Stickland, M, Bamford, JM, Davies, JA & Grant, PJ. Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) 4G/5G promoter polymorphism and levels in subjects with cerebrovascular disease. Thromb Haemost. 1997;77:730–734. PubMed

55. Ridker, PM, Hennekens, CH, Lindpaintner, K, Stampfer, MJ & Miletich, JP. Arterial and venous thrombosis is not associated with the 4G/5G polymorphism in the promoter of the plasminogen activator inhibitor gene in a large cohort of US men. Circulation. 1997;95:59–62. PubMed

56. Ye, S, Green, FR & Scarabin, PY, et al. The 4G/5G genetic polymorphism in the promoter of the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) gene is associated with differences in plasma PAI-1 activity but not with risk of myocardial infarction in the ECTIM study. Etude Cas-Témoins de I'nfarctus du Mycocarde. Thromb Haemost. 1995;74:837–841.

57. Kathiresan, S, Yang, Q & Larson, MG, et al. Common genetic variation in five thrombosis genes and relations to plasma hemostatic protein level and cardiovascular disease risk. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006;26:1405–1412. PubMed

58. Jern, C, Ladenvall, P, Wall, U & Jern, S. Gene polymorphism of t-PA is associated with forearm vascular release rate of t-PA. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1999;19:454–459. PubMed

59. van der Bom, JG, de Knijff, P & Haverkate, F, et al. Tissue plasminogen activator and risk of myocardial infarction. The Rotterdam Study. Circulation. 1997;95:2623–2627. PubMed

60. Ridker, PM, Baker, MT, Hennekens, CH, Stampfer, MJ & Vaughan, DE. Alu-repeat polymorphism in the gene coding for tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) and risks of myocardial infarction among middle-aged men. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997;17:1687–1690. PubMed

61. Steeds, R, Adams, M, Smith, P, Channer, K & Samani, NJ. Distribution of tissue plasminogen activator insertion/deletion polymorphism in myocardial infarction and control subjects. Thromb Haemost. 1998;79:980–984. PubMed

62. Ladenvall, P, Wall, U, Jern, S & Jern, C. Identification of eight novel single-nucleotide polymorphisms at human tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) locus: association with vascular t-PA release in vivo. Thromb Haemost. 2000;84:150–155. PubMed

63. Sakharov, DV, Plow, EF & Rijken, DC. On the mechanism of the antifibrinolytic activity of plasma carboxypeptidase B. J Biol Chem. 1997;272:14477–14482. PubMed

64. van Tilburg, NH, Rosendaal, FR & Bertina, RM. Thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor and the risk for deep vein thrombosis. Blood. 2000;95:2855–2859. PubMed

65. Morange, PE, Juhan-Vague, I & Scarabin, PY, et al. Association between TAFI antigen and Ala147Thr polymorphism of the TAFI gene and the angina pectoris incidence. The PRIME Study (Prospective Epidemiological Study of MI). Thromb Haemost. 2003;89:554–560. PubMed

66. Nguyen, TT, Ellefson, RD, Hodge, DO, Bailey, KR, Kottke, TE & Abu-Lebdeh, HS. Predictive value of electrophoretically detected lipoprotein(a) for coronary heart disease and cerebrovascular disease in a community-based cohort of 9936 men and women. Circulation. 1997;96:1390–1397. PubMed

67. Ariyo, AA, Thach, C & Tracy, R; Cardiovascular Health Study Investigators. Lp(a) lipoprotein, vascular disease, and mortality in the elderly. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:2108–2115. PubMed

68. Moroney, JT, Tang, MX & Berglund, L, et al. Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and the risk of dementia with stroke. JAMA. 1999;282:254–260. PubMed

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200. O'Donnell, CJ, Larson, MG & Feng, D, et al. Genetic and environmental contributions to platelet aggregation: the Framingham heart study. Circulation. 2001;103(25):3051–3056. PubMed

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205. Khorana, AA, Francis, CW, Culakova, E, Fisher, RI, Kuderer, NM & Lyman, GH. Thromboembolism in hospitalized neutropenic cancer patients. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24(3):484–490. PubMed

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207. Paramsothy, K. Prevalence of antiphospholipid antibodies in idiopathic venous thromboembolism. Blood. 2004;104:529.

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120. Zheng, SL, Sun, J & Wiklund, F, et al. Cumulative association of five genetic variants with prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:910–919. PubMed

121. Pharoah, PDP, Antoniou, AC, Easton, DF & Ponder, BAJ. Polygenes, risk prediction, and targeted prevention of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2796–2803. PubMed

Chapter 14 – Cardiomyopathies

1. Albers, GW, Amarenco, P, Easton, JD, Sacco, RL & Teal, P. Antithrombotic and thrombolytic therapy for ischemic stroke: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 2004;126(Suppl. 3):S483–S512.

2. Fields, WS, Maslenikov, V, Meyer, JS, Hass, WK, Remington, RD & Macdonald, M. Joint study of extracranial arterial occlusion. V. Progress report of prognosis following surgery or nonsurgical treatment for transient cerebral ischemic attacks and cervical carotid artery lesions. JAMA. 1970;211(12):1993–2003. PubMed

3. Shaw, DA, Venables, GS, Cartlidge, NE, Bates, D & Dickinson, PH. Carotid endarterectomy in patients with transient cerebral ischaemia. J Neurol Sci. 1984;64(1):45–53. PubMed

4. NASCET Collaborators. Beneficial effect of carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients with high-grade stenosis. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:445–453. PubMed

5. ECST Trialists' Group. MRC European Carotid Surgery Trial: interim results for symptomatic patients with severe (70–99%) or with mild (0–29%) carotid stenosis. European Carotid Surgery Trialists' Collaborative Group. Lancet. 1991;337(8752):1235–1243. PubMed

6. Mayberg, MR, Wilson, SE & Yatsu, F, et al. Carotid endarterectomy and prevention of cerebral ischemia in symptomatic carotid stenosis. Veterans Affairs Cooperative Studies Program 309 Trialist Group. JAMA. 1991;266(23):3289–3294. PubMed

7. Barnett, HJM, Taylor, DW & Eliasziw, M, et al. Benefit of carotid endarterectomy in patients with symptomatic moderate or severe stenosis. N Engl J Med. 1998;339(20):1415–1425. PubMed

8. Rothwell, PM, Eliasziw, M & Gutnikov, SA, et al. Analysis of pooled data from the randomised controlled trials of endarterectomy for symptomatic carotid stenosis. Lancet. 2003;361(9352):107. PubMed

9. Goldstein, LB, Hasselblad, V, Matchar, DB & McCrory, DC. Comparison and meta-analysis of randomized trials of endarterectomy for symptomatic carotid artery stenosis. Neurology. 1995;45(11):1965–1970. PubMed

10. Alamowitch, S, Eliasziw, M & Barnett, HJM, for the North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial and the ASAaCETG. The risk and benefit of endarterectomy in women with symptomatic internal carotid artery disease. Stroke. 2005;36(1):27–31. PubMed

11. Rothwell, PM, Gibson, RJ, Slattery, J, Sellar, RJ & Warlow, CP. Equivalence of measurements of carotid stenosis. A comparison of three methods on 1001 angiograms. European Carotid Surgery Trialists' Collaborative Group. Stroke. 1994;25(12):2435–2439. PubMed

12. Rothwell, PM, Gutnikov, SA & Warlow, CP. Reanalysis of the final results of the European Carotid Surgery Trial. Stroke. 2003;34(2):514–523. PubMed

13. Bernstein, M, Fleming, JF & Deck, JH. Cerebral hyperperfusion after carotid endarterectomy: a cause of cerebral hemorrhage. Neurosurgery. 1984;15(1):50–56. PubMed

14. Piepgras, DG, Morgan, MK, Sundt, TM Jr, Yanagihara, T & Mussman, LM. Intracerebral hemorrhage after carotid endarterectomy. J Neurosurg. 1988;68(4):532–536. PubMed

15. Ferguson, GG, Eliasziw, M & Barr, HWK, et al. The North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial: surgical results in 1415 patients. Stroke. 1999;30(9):1751–1758. PubMed

16. Hafner, DH, Smith, RB 3rd & King, OW, et al. Massive intracerebral hemorrhage following carotid endarterectomy. Arch Surg. 1987;122(3):305–307. PubMed

17. Lovett, JK, Coull, AJ & Rothwell, PM. Early risk of recurrence by subtype of ischemic stroke in population-based incidence studies. Neurology. 2004;62(4):569–573. PubMed

18. Johnston, SC, Gress, DR, Browner, WS & Sidney, S. Short-term prognosis after emergency department diagnosis of TIA. JAMA. 2000;284(22):2901–2906. PubMed

19. Rothwell, PM, Eliasziw, M, Gutnikov, SA, Warlow, CP & Barnett, HJM. Endarterectomy for symptomatic carotid stenosis in relation to clinical subgroups and timing of surgery. Lancet. 2004;363(9413):915. PubMed

20. Chaturvedi, S, Bruno, A & Feasby, T, et al. Carotid endarterectomy – an evidence-based review: report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2005;65(6):794–801. PubMed

21. Sacco, RL, Adams, R & Albers, G, et al. Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Council on Stroke: co-sponsored by the Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline. Stroke. 2006;37(2):577–617. PubMed

22. Bond, R, Rerkasem, K, Cuffe, R & Rothwell, PM. A systematic review of the associations between age and sex and the operative risks of carotid endarterectomy. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2005;20:69–77. PubMed

23. Grego, F, Lepidi, S & Antonello, M, et al. Is carotid endarterectomy in octogenarians more dangerous than in younger patients? J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino). 2005;46(5):477–483. PubMed

24. Wennberg, DE, Lucas, FL, Birkmeyer, JD, Bredenberg, CE & Fisher, ES. Variation in carotid endarterectomy mortality in the Medicare population: trial hospitals, volume, and patient characteristics. JAMA. 1998;279(16):1278–1281. PubMed

25. Benavente, O, Eliasziw, M & Streifler, JY, et al. Prognosis after transient monocular blindness associated with carotid-artery stenosis. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(15):1084–1090. PubMed

26. Grego, F, Antonello, M & Lepidi, S, et al. Is contralateral carotid artery occlusion a risk factor for carotid endarterectomy? Ann Vasc Surg. 2005;19(6):882–889. PubMed

27. AbuRahma, AF, Robinson, P, Holt, SM, Herzog, TA & Mowery, NT. Perioperative and late stroke rates of carotid endarterectomy contralateral to carotid artery occlusion: results from a randomized trial. Stroke. 2000;31(7):1566–1571. PubMed

28. Klijn, CJ, van Buren, PA & Kappelle, LJ, et al. Outcome in patients with symptomatic occlusion of the internal carotid artery. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2000;19(6):579–586. PubMed

29. Gasecki, AP, Eliasziw, M, Ferguson, GG, Hachinski, V & Barnett, HJM. Long-term prognosis and effect of endarterectomy in patients with symptomatic severe carotid stenosis and contralateral carotid stenosis or occlusion: results from NASCET. J Neurosurg. 1995;83(5):778. PubMed

30. Park, AE, McCarthy, WJ, Pearce, WH, Matsumura, JS & Yao, JS. Carotid plaque morphology correlates with presenting symptomatology. J Vasc Surg. 1998;27(5):872–878; discussion 878–879. PubMed

31. Fisher, M, Paganini-Hill, A & Martin, A, et al. Carotid plaque pathology: thrombosis, ulceration, and stroke pathogenesis. Stroke. 2005;36(2):253–257. PubMed

32. Eliasziw, M, Streifler, JY, Fox, AJ, Hachinski, VC, Ferguson, GG & Barnett, HJ. Significance of plaque ulceration in symptomatic patients with high-grade carotid stenosis. North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial. Stroke. 1994;25(2):304–308. PubMed

33. Streifler, JY, Eliasziw, M & Fox, AJ, et al. Angiographic detection of carotid plaque ulceration. Comparison with surgical observations in a multicenter study. North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial. Stroke. 1994;25(6):1130–1132. PubMed

34. Morgenstern, LB, Fox, AJ, Sharpe, BL, Eliasziw, M, Barnett, HJ & Grotta, JC. The risks and benefits of carotid endarterectomy in patients with near occlusion of the carotid artery. North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial (NASCET) Group. Neurology. 1997;48(4):911–915. PubMed

35. Fox, AJ, Eliasziw, M & Rothwell, PM, et al. Identification, prognosis, and management of patients with carotid artery near occlusion. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2005;26(8):2086–2094. PubMed

36. Hobson, R, Weiss, D & Fields, W, et al. Endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis. Executive Committee for the Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis Study. JAMA. 1995;273(18):1421–1428. PubMed

37. Halliday, A, Mansfield, A, Marro, J, Peto, C, Peto, R, Potter, J & Thomas, D. MRC Asymptomatic Carotid Surgery Trial (ACST) Collaborative Group. Prevention of disabling and fatal strokes by successful carotid endarterectomy in patients without recent neurological symptoms: randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2004;363(9420):1491. PubMed

38. Tu, JV, Wang, H, Bowyer, B, Green, L, Fang, J & Kucey, D. Risk factors for death or stroke after carotid endarterectomy: observations from the Ontario Carotid Endarterectomy Registry. Stroke. 2003;34(11):2568–2573. PubMed

39. Chambers, BR & Donnan, GA. Carotid endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid stenosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005(4):CD001923. PubMed

40. Barnett, HJM, Meldrum, HE & Eliasziw, M. The appropriate use of carotid endarterectomy. CMAJ. 2002;166(9):1169–1179. PubMed

41. Inzitari, D, Eliasziw, M & Gates, P, et al. The causes and risk of stroke in patients with asymptomatic internal-carotid-artery stenosis. New Engl J Med. 2000;342:1693–1701. PubMed

42. Goldstein, LB, Samsa, GP, Matchar, DB & Oddone, EZ. Multicenter review of preoperative risk factors for endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis. Stroke. 1998;29(4):750–753. PubMed

43. Goldstein, LB, Adams, R & Alberts, MJ, et al. Primary prevention of ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council: cosponsored by the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease Interdisciplinary Working Group; Cardiovascular Nursing Council; Clinical Cardiology Council; Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism Council; and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline. Stroke. 2006;37:1583–1633. PubMed

44. Taylor, DW, Barnett, HJM & Haynes, RB, et al. Low-dose and high-dose acetylsalicylic acid for patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 1999;353(9171):2179. PubMed

45. Engelter, S & Lyrer, P. Antiplatelet therapy for preventing stroke and other vascular events after carotid endarterectomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003(3):CD001458.

46. Poldermans, D, Bax, JJ & Kertai, MD, et al. Statins are associated with a reduced incidence of perioperative mortality in patients undergoing major noncardiac vascular surgery. Circulation. 2003;107(14):1848–1851. PubMed

47. Devereaux, PJ, Beattie, WS & Choi, PTL, et al. How strong is the evidence for the use of perioperative beta blockers in non-cardiac surgery? Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 2005;331(7512):313–321. PubMed

48. McGirt, MJ, Perler, BA & Brooke, BS, et al. 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors reduce the risk of perioperative stroke and mortality after carotid endarterectomy. J Vasc Surg. 2005;42(5):829. PubMed

49. Findlay, JM & Marchak, BE. Reoperation for acute hemispheric stroke after carotid endarterectomy: is there any value? Neurosurgery. 2002;50(3):486–492; discussion 492–493. PubMed

50. Rothwell, PM, Slattery, J & Warlow, CP. Clinical and angiographic predictors of stroke and death from carotid endarterectomy: systematic review. BMJ. 1997;315(7122):1571–1577. PubMed

51. AbuRahma, AF, Jennings, TG, Wulu, JT, Tarakji, L & Robinson, PA. Redo carotid endarterectomy versus primary carotid endarterectomy. Stroke. 2001;32(12):2787–2792. PubMed

52. Bates, ER, Babb, JD & Casey, DE, et al. ACCF/SCAI/SVMB/SIR/ASITN 2007 Clinical Expert Consensus Document on carotid stenting. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:126–170. PubMed

53. Yadav, JS, Wholey, MH & Kuntz, RE, et al. Protected carotid-artery stenting versus endarterectomy in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(15):1493–1501. PubMed

54. Gurm, HS, Yadav, JS & Fayad, P, et al. Long-term results of carotid stenting versus endarterectomy in high-risk patients. New Engl J Med. 2008;358:1572–1579. PubMed

55. Goodney, PP & Powell, RJ. Carotid artery stenting: what have we learned from the clinical trials and registries and where do we go from here. Ann Vasc Surg. 2008;22(1):148. PubMed

56. SPACE Collaborative Group. 30 day results from the SPACE trial of stent-protected angioplasty versus carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients: a randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2006;368(9543):1239. PubMed

57. Mas, J-L, Chatellier, G & Beyssen, B, et al. Endarterectomy versus stenting in patients with symptomatic severe carotid stenosis. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(16):1660–1671. PubMed

58. Harjai, KJ & Mehta, RH. trials and tribulations of carotid artery stenting: the Interventionalists' perspective on SAPPHIRE, EVA-3S, and SPACE Trials. J Interv Cardiol. 2007;20(5):389–394. PubMed

59. Chaturvedi, S. Should the multicenter carotid endarterectomy trials be repeated? Arch Neurol. 2003;60:774–775. PubMed

Chapter 15 – Atrial Fibrillation

1. Baker, AB, Resch, JA & Loewenson, RB. Cerebral atherosclerosis in European populations: a preliminary report. Stroke. 1973;4:898–903. PubMed

2. World health organization: Special subjects – vascular lesions affecting central nervous system. World Health Stat Rep 2: 481–509 (No 9) 1969.

3. Baker, AB, Refsum, S & Dahl, E. Cerebrovascular disease. IV. A study of a Norwegian population. Neurology. 1960;10:525–529. PubMed

4. Baker, AB, Iannone, A & Kinnard, J. Cerebrovascular disease. 5. A comparative study of an American and a Norwegian population. World Neurol. 1960;1:127–136. PubMed

5. Wong, KS, Ng, PW, Tang, A, Liu, R, Yeung, V & Tomlinson, B. Prevalence of asymptomatic intracranial atherosclerosis in high-risk patients. Neurology. 2007;68:2035–2038. PubMed

6. Sacco, RL, Kargman, DE, Gu, Q & Zamanillo, MC. Race-ethnicity and determinants of intracranial atherosclerotic cerebral infarction. The Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Stroke. 1995;26:14–20. PubMed

7. Segura, T, Serena, J, Castellanos, M, Teruel, J, Vilar, C & Davalos, A. Embolism in acute middle cerebral artery stenosis. Neurology. 2001;56:497–501. PubMed

8. Wityk, RJ, Lehman, D, Klag, M, Coresh, J, Ahn, H & Litt, B. Race and sex differences in the distribution of cerebral atherosclerosis. Stroke. 1996;27:1974–1980. PubMed

9. Chimowitz, MI, Lynn, MJ & Howlett-Smith, H, et al. Comparison of warfarin and aspirin for symptomatic intracranial arterial stenosis. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1305–1316. PubMed

10. Bogousslavsky, J, Barnett, HJ, Fox, AJ, Hachinski, VC & Taylor, W. Atherosclerotic disease of the middle cerebral artery. Stroke. 1986;17:1112–1120. PubMed

11. Gomez, CR & Orr, SC. Angioplasty and stenting for primary treatment of intracranial arterial stenoses. Arch Neurol. 2001;58:1687–1690. PubMed

12. Stenting of symptomatic atherosclerotic lesions in the vertebral or intracranial arteries (SSYLVIA): Study results. Stroke. 2004;35:1388–1392. PubMed

13. Design, progress and challenges of a double-blind trial of warfarin versus aspirin for symptomatic intracranial arterial stenosis. Neuroepidemiology. 2003;22:106–117. PubMed

14. Chimowitz, MI, Kokkinos, J & Strong, J, et al. The warfarin-aspirin symptomatic intracranial disease study. Neurology. 1995;45:1488–1493. PubMed

15. Caplan, LR, Gorelick, PB & Hier, DB. Race, sex and occlusive cerebrovascular disease: a review. Stroke. 1986;17:648–655. PubMed

16. Craig, DR, Meguro, K, Watridge, C, Robertson, JT, Barnett, HJ & Fox, AJ. Intracranial internal carotid artery stenosis. Stroke. 1982;13:825–828. PubMed

17. Ingall, TJ, Homer, D, Baker, HL Jr, Kottke, BA, O'Fallon, WM & Whisnant, JP. Predictors of intracranial carotid artery atherosclerosis. Duration of cigarette smoking and hypertension are more powerful than serum lipid levels. Arch Neurol. 1991;48:687–691. PubMed

18. Inzitari, D, Hachinski, VC, Taylor, DW & Barnett, HJ. Racial differences in the anterior circulation in cerebrovascular disease. How much can be explained by risk factors? Arch Neurol. 1990;47:1080–1084. PubMed

19. Fisher, CM. Cerebral arterial occlusion – remarks on pathology, pathophysiology, and diagnosis. Clin Neurosurg. 1963;9:88–105. PubMed

20. Baker, AB, Resch, JA & Loewenson, RB. Hypertension and cerebral atherosclerosis. Circulation. 1969;39:701–710. PubMed

21. Chaturvedi, S, Turan, TN & Lynn, MJ, et al. Risk factor status and vascular events in patients with symptomatic intracranial stenosis. Neurology. 2007;69:2063–2068. PubMed

22. Loewenson, RB, Flora, GC & Baker, AB. The role of socioeconomic factors in cerebral atherosclerosis. Stroke. 1971;2:378–382. PubMed

23. Derdeyn, CP, Grubb, RL Jr & Powers, WJ. Cerebral hemodynamic impairment: methods of measurement and association with stroke risk. Neurology. 1999;53:251–259. PubMed

24. Grubb, RL Jr, Derdeyn, CP & Fritsch, SM, et al. Importance of hemodynamic factors in the prognosis of symptomatic carotid occlusion. JAMA. 1998;280:1055–1060. PubMed

25. Naritomi, H, Sawada, T, Kuriyama, Y, Kinugawa, H, Kaneko, T & Takamiya, M. Effect of chronic middle cerebral artery stenosis on the local cerebral hemodynamics. Stroke. 1985;16:214–219. PubMed

26. Constantinides, P. Pathogenesis of cerebral artery thrombosis in man. Arch Pathol. 1967;83:422–428. PubMed

27. Caplan, LR. Intracranial branch atheromatous disease: a neglected, understudied, and underused concept. Neurology. 1989;39:1246–1250. PubMed

28. Failure of extracranial-intracranial arterial bypass to reduce the risk of ischemic stroke. Results of an international randomized trial. The EC/IC bypass study group. N Engl J Med. 1985;313:1191–1200. PubMed

29. Thijs, VN & Albers, GW. Symptomatic intracranial atherosclerosis: outcome of patients who fail antithrombotic therapy. Neurology. 2000;55:490–497. PubMed

30. Kasner, SE, Chimowitz, MI & Lynn, MJ, et al. Predictors of ischemic stroke in the territory of a symptomatic intracranial arterial stenosis. Circulation. 2006;113:555–563. PubMed

31. Qureshi, AI, Ziai, WC & Yahia, AM, et al. Stroke-free survival and its determinants in patients with symptomatic vertebrobasilar stenosis: a multicenter study. Neurosurgery. 2003;52:1033–1039; discussion 9–40. PubMed

32. Mazighi, M, Tanasescu, R & Ducrocq, X, et al. Prospective study of symptomatic atherothrombotic intracranial stenoses: the GESICA study. Neurology. 2006;66:1187–1191. PubMed

33. Feldmann, E, Wilterdink, JL & Kosinski, A, et al. The Stroke Outcomes and Neuroimaging of Intracranial Atherosclerosis (SONIA) trial. Neurology. 2007;68:2099–2106. PubMed

34. Bash, S, Villablanca, JP & Jahan, R, et al. Intracranial vascular stenosis and occlusive disease: evaluation with CT angiography, MR angiography, and digital subtraction angiography. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2005;26:1012–1021. PubMed

35. Sloan, MA, Alexandrov, AV & Tegeler, CH, et al. Assessment: transcranial Doppler ultrasonography: report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2004;62:1468–1481. PubMed

36. Ravalli, S, LiMandri, G & Di Tullio, MR, et al. Intravascular ultrasound imaging of human cerebral arteries. J Neuroimaging. 1996;6:71–75. PubMed

37. Wehman, JC, Holmes, DR Jr, Hanel, RA, Levy, EI & Hopkins, LN. Intravascular ultrasound for intracranial angioplasty and stent placement: Technical case report. Neurosurgery. 2006;59:ONSE 481–483.

38. Diethrich, EB & Pauliina Margolis, M, et al. Virtual his-tology intravascular ultrasound assessment of carotid artery disease: the Carotid Artery Plaque Virtual Histology Evaluation (CAPITAL) Study. J Endovasc Ther. 2007;14:676–686. PubMed

39. Kwon, SU, Cho, YJ & Koo, JS, et al. Cilostazol prevents the progression of the symptomatic intracranial arterial stenosis: the multicenter double-blind placebo-controlled trial of cilostazol in symptomatic intracranial arterial stenosis. Stroke. 2005;36:782–786. PubMed

40. Diener, HC, Cunha, L, Forbes, C, Sivenius, J, Smets, P & Lowenthal, A. European Stroke Prevention Study. 2. Dipyridamole and acetylsalicylic acid in the secondary prevention of stroke. J Neurol Sci. 1996;143:1–13. PubMed

41. Halkes, PH, van Gijn, J, Kappelle, LJ, Koudstaal, PJ & Algra, A. Aspirin plus dipyridamole versus aspirin alone after cerebral ischaemia of arterial origin (ESPRIT): randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2006;367:1665–1673. PubMed

42. CAST: Randomized placebo-controlled trial of early aspirin use in 20,000 patients with acute ischaemic stroke. Cast (Chinese Acute Stroke Trial) collaborative group. Lancet. 1997;349:1641–1649. PubMed

43. The International Stroke Trial (IST): A randomised trial of aspirin, subcutaneous heparin, both, or neither among 19435 patients with acute ischemic stroke. International Stroke Trial collaborative group. Lancet. 1997;349:1569–1581. PubMed

44. Millikan, CH, Siekert, RG & Shick, RM. The use of anticoagulant drugs in the treatment of intermittent insufficiency and thrombosis within the basilar arterial system. Transactions of the American Neurological Association 1955:132-4. PubMed

45. Zaidat, OO, Klucznik, R & Alexander, MJ, et al. The NIH registry on use of the Wingspan stent for symptomatic 70-99% intracranial arterial stenosis. Neurology. 2008;70:1518–1524. PubMed

46. Schoenhagen, P, Tuzcu, EM & Apperson-Hansen, C, et al. Determinants of arterial wall remodeling during lipid-lowering therapy: serial intravascular ultrasound observations from the Reversal of Atherosclerosis with Aggressive Lipid Lowering Therapy (REVERSAL) trial. Circulation. 2006;113:2826–2834. PubMed

47. Nissen, SE, Nicholls, SJ & Sipahi, I, et al. Effect of very high-intensity statin therapy on regression of coronary atherosclerosis: the ASTEROID trial. JAMA. 2006;295:1556–1565. PubMed

48. Donaghy, RMP & Yasargil, MG. Micro-vascular surgery. Editors C.V. Mosby Co; St Louis, and Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart. 1967.

49. Sundt, TM Jr, Siekert, RG, Piepgras, DG, Sharbrough, FW & Houser, OW. Bypass surgery for vascular disease of the carotid system. Mayo Clin Proc. 1976;51:677–692. PubMed

50. Yamashita, T, Kashiwagi, S & Nakano, S, et al. The effect of EC-IC bypass surgery on resting cerebral blood flow and cerebrovascular reserve capacity studied with stable XE-CT and acetazolamide test. Neuroradiology. 1991;33:217–222. PubMed

51. Murata, Y, Katayama, Y, Sakatani, K, Fukaya, C & Kano, T. Evaluation of extracranial-intracranial arterial bypass function by using near-infrared spectroscopy. J Neurosurg. 2003;99:304–310. PubMed

52. Neff, KW, Horn, P, Dinter, D, Vajkoczy, P, Schmiedek, P & Duber, C. Extracranial-intracranial arterial bypass surgery improves total brain blood supply in selected symptomatic patients with unilateral internal carotid artery occlusion and insufficient collateralization. Neuroradiology. 2004;46:730–737. PubMed

53. Qureshi, AI. Endovascular treatment of cerebrovascular diseases and intracranial neoplasms. Lancet. 2004;363:804–813. PubMed

54. Qureshi, AI, Suri, MF & Siddiqui, AM, et al. Clinical and angiographic results of dilatation procedures for symptomatic intracranial atherosclerotic disease. J Neuroimaging. 2005;15:240–249. PubMed

55. Marks, MP, Marcellus, M, Norbash, AM, Steinberg, GK, Tong, D & Albers, GW. Outcome of angioplasty for atherosclerotic intracranial stenosis. Stroke. 1999;30:1065–1069. PubMed

56. Qureshi, AI, Luft, AR, Sharma, M, Guterman, LR & Hopkins, LN. Prevention and treatment of thromboembolic and ischemic complications associated with endovascular procedures: part II – clinical aspects and recommendations. Neurosurgery. 2000;46:1360–1375; discussion 75–76. PubMed

57. Connors, JJ 3rd & Wojak, JC. Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty for intracranial atherosclerotic lesions: evolution of technique and short-term results. J Neurosurg. 1999;91:415–423. PubMed

58. Gress, DR, Smith, WS, Dowd, CF, Van Halbach, V, Finley, RJ & Higashida, RT. Angioplasty for intracranial symptomatic vertebrobasilar ischemia. Neurosurgery. 2002;51:23–27; discussion 7–9. PubMed

59. Mori, T, Kazita, K, Chokyu, K, Mima, T & Mori, K. Short-term arteriographic and clinical outcome after cerebral angioplasty and stenting for intracranial vertebrobasilar and carotid atherosclerotic occlusive disease. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2000;21:249–254. PubMed

60. Mori, T, Mori, K, Fukuoka, M, Arisawa, M & Honda, S. Percutaneous transluminal cerebral angioplasty: serial angiographic follow-up after successful dilatation. Neuroradiology. 1997;39:111–116. PubMed

61. Mori, T, Arisawa, M, Honda, S, Fukuoka, M, Kurisaka, M & Mori, K. [Three months angiographic follow-up after successful percutaneous transluminal angioplasty]. No Shinkei Geka. 1993;21:141–146. PubMed

62. Wojak, JC, Dunlap, DC, Hargrave, KR, DeAlvare, LA, Culbertson, HS & Connors, JJ 3rd. Intracranial angioplasty and stenting: long-term results from a single center. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2006;27:1882–1892. PubMed

63. Taylor, RA & Kasner, SE. Treatment of intracranial arterial stenosis. Expert Rev Neurother. 2006;6:1685–1694. PubMed

64. Terada, T, Tsuura, M & Matsumoto, H, et al. Endovascular therapy for stenosis of the petrous or cavernous portion of the internal carotid artery: percutaneous transluminal angioplasty compared with stent placement. J Neurosurg. 2003;98:491–497. PubMed

65. Lylyk, P, Vila, JF & Miranda, C, et al. Endovascular reconstruction by means of stent placement in symptomatic intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis. Neurol Res. 2005;27(Suppl. 1):S84–S88. PubMed

66. Gupta, R, Schumacher, HC & Mangla, S, et al. Urgent endovascular revascularization for symptomatic intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis. Neurology. 2003;61:1729–1735. PubMed

67. Kim, JK, Ahn, JY & Lee, BH, et al. Elective stenting for symptomatic middle cerebral artery stenosis presenting as transient ischaemic deficits or stroke attacks: short term arteriographical and clinical outcome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004;75:847–851. PubMed

68. Jiang, WJ, Wang, YJ & Du, B, et al. Stenting of symptomatic M1 stenosis of middle cerebral artery: an initial experience of 40 patients. Stroke. 2004;35:1375–1380. PubMed

69. de Rochemont R du, M, Turowski, B, Buchkremer, M, Sitzer, M, Zanella, FE & Berkefeld, J. Recurrent symptomatic high-grade intracranial stenoses: safety and efficacy of undersized stents – initial experience. Radiology. 2004;231:45–49. PubMed

70. Qureshi, AI. Ten years of advances in neuroendovascular procedures. J Endovasc Ther. 2004;11(Suppl. 2):II1–II4.

71. Jiang, WJ, Xu, XT, Jin, M, Du, B, Dong, KH & Dai, JP. Apollo stent for symptomatic atherosclerotic intracranial stenosis: study results. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2007;28:830–834. PubMed

72. Garas, SM, Huber, P & Scott, NA. Overview of therapies for prevention of restenosis after coronary interventions. Pharmacol Ther. 2001;92:165–178. PubMed

73. Qureshi, AI, Kirmani, JF & Hussein, HM, et al. Early and intermediate-term outcomes with drug-eluting stents in high-risk patients with symptomatic intracranial stenosis. Neurosurgery. 2006;59:1044–1051. PubMed

74. Bose, A, Hartmann, M & Henkes, H, et al. A novel, self-expanding, nitinol stent in medically refractory intracranial atherosclerotic stenoses: the Wingspan study. Stroke. 2007;38:1531–1537. PubMed

75. Fiorella, D, Levy, EI & Turk, AS, et al. US multicenter experience with the Wingspan stent system for the treatment of intracranial atheromatous disease: periprocedural results. Stroke. 2007;38:881–887. PubMed

76. Siddiq, F, Vazquez, G & Memon, MZ, et al. Comparison of primary angioplasty with stent placement for treating symptomatic intracranial atherosclerotic diseases: A multicenter study. Stroke. 2008;39:2505–2510. PubMed

77. Sacco, RL, Adams, R & Albers, G, et al. Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Council on Stroke: co-sponsored by the Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline. Stroke. 2006;37:577–617. PubMed

78. Alberts, MJ, Latchaw, RE & Selman, WR, et al. Recommendations for comprehensive stroke centers: a consensus statement from the Brain Attack Coalition. Stroke. 2005;36:1597–1616. PubMed

79. Higashida, RT, Meyers, PM & Connors, JJ, et al. Intracranial angioplasty & stenting for cerebral atherosclerosis: a position statement of the American Society of Interventional and Therapeutic Neuroradiology, Society of Interventional Radiology, and the American Society of Neuroradiology. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2005;16:1281–1285. PubMed

80. Marks, MP, Wojak, JC & Al-Ali, F, et al. Angioplasty for symptomatic intracranial stenosis: clinical outcome. Stroke. 2006;37:1016–1020. PubMed

81. Lylyk, P, Cohen, JE, Ceratto, R, Ferrario, A & Miranda, C. Angioplasty and stent placement in intracranial atherosclerotic stenoses and dissections. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2002;23:430–436. PubMed

82. Jiang, WJ, Xu, XT & Du, B, et al. Comparison of elective stenting of severe vs moderate intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis. Neurology. 2007;68:420–426. PubMed

83. Stenting vs. aggressive medical management for preventing recurrent stroke in intracranial stenosis. SAMMPRIS trial investigators 2008. Available at http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Accessed on June 30, 2008.

Chapter 16 – Supraventricular Arrhymthias

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2. Schroeckenstein, RF, Wasenda, GJ & Edwards, JE. Valvular competent patent foramen ovale in adults. Minn Med. 1972;55:11–13. PubMed

3. Hagen, PT, Scholz, DG & Edwards, WD. Incidence and size of patent foramen ovale during the first 10 decades of life: an autopsy study of 965 normal hearts. Mayo Clin Proc. 1984;59:17–20. PubMed

4. Sweeney, LJ & Rosenquist, GC. The normal anatomy of the atrial septum in the human heart. Am Heart J. 1979;98:194–199. PubMed

5. Rodriguez, CJ, Homma, S, Sacco, RL, Di Tullio, MR, Sciacca, RR & Mohr, JP. Race-ethnic differences in patent foramen ovale, atrial septal aneurysm, and right atrial anatomy among ischemic stroke patients. Stroke. 2003;34:2097–2102. PubMed

6. Gupta, V, Yesilbursa, D & Huang, WY, et al. Patent foramen ovale in a large population of ischemic stroke patients: diagnosis, age distribution, gender, and race. Echocardiography. 2008;25:217–227. PubMed

7. Mugge, A, Daniel, WG & Angermann, C, et al. Atrial septal aneurysm in adult patients. A multicenter study using transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiography. Circulation. 1995;91:2785–2792. PubMed

8. Meissner, I, Whisnant, JP & Khandheria, BK, et al. Prevalence of potential risk factors for stroke assessed by transesophageal echocardiography and carotid ultrasonography: the SPARC study. Stroke Prevention: Assessment of Risk in a Community. Mayo Clin Proc. 1999;74:862–869. PubMed

9. Meissner, I, Khandheria, BK & Heit, JA, et al. Patent foramen ovale: innocent or guilty? Evidence from a prospective population-based study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47:440–445. PubMed

10. Di Tullio, MR, Sacco, RL, Sciacca, RR, Jin, Z & Homma, S. Patent foramen ovale and the risk of ischemic stroke in a multiethnic population. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:797–802. PubMed

11. Kizer, JR & Devereux, RB. Clinical practice. Patent foramen ovale in young adults with unexplained stroke. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:2361–2372. PubMed

12. Hanley, PC, Tajik, AJ & Hynes, JK, et al. Diagnosis and classification of atrial septal aneurysm by two-dimensional echocardiography: report of 80 consecutive cases. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1985;6:1370–1382. PubMed

13. Schneider, B, Hanrath, P, Vogel, P & Meinertz, T. Improved morphologic characterization of atrial septal aneurysm by transesophageal echocardiography: relation to cerebrovascular events. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1990;16:1000–1009. PubMed

14. Zabalgoitia-Reyes, M, Herrera, C, Gandhi, DK, Mehlman, DJ, McPherson, DD & Talano, JV. A possible mechanism for neurologic ischemic events in patients with atrial septal aneurysm. Am J Cardiol. 1990;66:761–764. PubMed

15. Pearson, AC, Nagelhout, D, Castello, R, Gomez, CR & Labovitz, AJ. Atrial septal aneurysm and stroke: a transesophageal echocardiographic study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;18:1223–1229. PubMed

16. Silver, MD & Dorsey, JS. Aneurysms of the septum primum in adults. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1978;102:62–65. PubMed

17. Mattioli, AV, Bonetti, L, Aquilina, M, Oldani, A, Longhini, C & Mattioli, G. Association between atrial septal aneurysm and patent foramen ovale in young patients with recent stroke and normal carotid arteries. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2003;15:4–10. PubMed

18. Burger, AJ, Jadhav, P & Kamalesh, M. Low incidence of cerebrovascular events in patients with incidental atrial septal aneurysm. Echocardiography. 1997;14:589–596. PubMed

19. Homma, S, Sacco, RL, Di Tullio, MR, Sciacca, RR & Mohr, JP. Atrial anatomy in non-cardioembolic stroke patients: effect of medical therapy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42:1066–1072. PubMed

20. Daniel, WG, Erbel, R & Kasper, W, et al. Safety of transesophageal echocardiography. A multicenter survey of 10,419 examinations. Circulation. 1991;83:817–821. PubMed

21. Berkompas, DC & Sagar, KB. Accuracy of color Doppler transesophageal echocardiography for diagnosis of patent foramen ovale. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1994;7:253–256. PubMed

22. Teague, SM & Sharma, MK. Detection of paradoxical cerebral echo contrast embolization by transcranial Doppler ultrasound. Stroke. 1991;22:740–745. PubMed

23. Di Tullio, M, Sacco, RL, Venketasubramanian, N, Sherman, D, Mohr, JP & Homma, S. Comparison of diagnostic techniques for the detection of a patent foramen ovale in stroke patients. Stroke. 1993;24:1020–1024. PubMed

24. Jauss, M, Kaps, M, Keberle, M, Haberbosch, W & Dorndorf, W. A comparison of transesophageal echocardiography and transcranial Doppler sonography with contrast medium for detection of patent foramen ovale. Stroke. 1994;25:1265–1267. PubMed

25. Karnik, R, Stollberger, C, Valentin, A, Winkler, WB & Slany, J. Detection of patent foramen ovale by transcranial contrast Doppler ultrasound. Am J Cardiol. 1992;69:560–562. PubMed

26. Job, FP, Ringelstein, EB & Grafen, Y, et al. Comparison of transcranial contrast Doppler sonography and transesophageal contrast echocardiography for the detection of patent foramen ovale in young stroke patients. Am J Cardiol. 1994;74:381–384. PubMed

27. Klotzsch, C, Janssen, G & Berlit, P. Transesophageal echocardiography and contrast-TCD in the detection of a patent foramen ovale: experiences with 111 patients. Neurology. 1994;44:1603–1606. PubMed

28. Di Tullio, M, Sacco, RL & Massaro, A, et al. Transcranial Doppler with contrast injection for the detection of patent foramen ovale in stroke patients. Int J Card Imaging. 1993;9:1–5. PubMed

29. Nemec, JJ, Marwick, TH & Lorig, RJ, et al. Comparison of transcranial Doppler ultrasound and transesophageal contrast echocardiography in the detection of interatrial right-to-left shunts. Am J Cardiol. 1991;68:1498–1502. PubMed

30. Cohnheim, J. Thrombose und embolie. Vorl Allg Pathol. 1877;1:134.

31. Sacco, RL, Ellenberg, JH & Mohr, JP, et al. Infarcts of undetermined cause: the NINCDS Stroke Data Bank. Ann Neurol. 1989;25:382–390. PubMed

32. Lechat, P, Mas, JL & Lascault, G, et al. Prevalence of patent foramen ovale in patients with stroke. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:1148–1152. PubMed

33. Webster, MW, Chancellor, AM & Smith, HJ, et al. Patent foramen ovale in young stroke patients. Lancet. 1988;2:11–12. PubMed

34. Cabanes, L, Mas, JL & Cohen, A, et al. Atrial septal aneurysm and patent foramen ovale as risk factors for cryptogenic stroke in patients less than 55 years of age. A study using transesophageal echocardiography. Stroke. 1993;24:1865–1873. PubMed

35. de Belder, MA, Tourikis, L, Leech, G & Camm, AJ. Risk of patent foramen ovale for thromboembolic events in all age groups. Am J Cardiol. 1992;69:1316–1320. PubMed

36. Di Tullio, M, Sacco, RL, Gopal, A, Mohr, JP & Homma, S. Patent foramen ovale as a risk factor for cryptogenic stroke. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117:461–465. PubMed

37. Hausmann, D, Mugge, A, Becht, I & Daniel, WG. Diagnosis of patent foramen ovale by transesophageal echocardiography and association with cerebral and peripheral embolic events. Am J Cardiol. 1992;70:668–672. PubMed

38. Hart, RG & Miller, VT. Cerebral infarction in young adults: a practical approach. Stroke. 1983;14:110–114. PubMed

39. Jones, EF, Calafiore, P, Donnan, GA & Tonkin, AM. Evidence that patent foramen ovale is not a risk factor for cerebral ischemia in the elderly. Am J Cardiol. 1994;74:596–599. PubMed

40. Overell, JR, Bone, I & Lees, KR. Interatrial septal abnormalities and stroke: a meta-analysis of case-control studies. Neurology. 2000;55:1172–1179. PubMed

41. Handke, M, Harloff, A, Olschewski, M, Hetzel, A & Geibel, A. Patent foramen ovale and cryptogenic stroke in older patients. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:2262–2268. PubMed

42. Mirode, A, Tribouilloy, C, Boey, S, Hadj, KL, Choquet, D & Lesbre, JP. [Aneurysm of the interatrial septum. Contribution of transesophageal echography. Relation with systemic embolic complications]. Ann Cardiol Angeiol (Paris). 1993;42:7–12. PubMed

43. Labovitz, AJ, Camp, A & Castello, R, et al. Usefulness of transesophageal echocardiography in unexplained cerebral ischemia. Am J Cardiol. 1993;72:1448–1452. PubMed

44. Albers, GW, Comess, KA & DeRook, FA, et al. Transesophageal echocardiographic findings in stroke subtypes. Stroke. 1994;25:23–28. PubMed

45. Fox, ER, Picard, MH, Chow, CM, Levine, RA, Schwamm, L & Kerr, AJ. Interatrial septal mobility predicts larger shunts across patent foramen ovales: an analysis with transmitral Doppler scanning. Am Heart J. 2003;145:730–736. PubMed

46. Berthet, K, Lavergne, T & Cohen, A, et al. Significant association of atrial vulnerability with atrial septal abnormalities in young patients with ischemic stroke of unknown cause. Stroke. 2000;31:398–403. PubMed

47. Kizer, JR. Patent foramen ovale and cryptogenic stroke. Am J Med. 2007;120:e13. PubMed

48. Homma, S, Di Tullio, MR, Sacco, RL, Mihalatos, D, Li, MG & Mohr, JP. Characteristics of patent foramen ovale associated with cryptogenic stroke. A biplane transesophageal echocardiographic study. Stroke. 1994;25:582–586. PubMed

49. Hausmann, D, Mugge, A & Daniel, WG. Identification of patent foramen ovale permitting paradoxic embolism. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;26:1030–1038. PubMed

50. Van, CG, Schulze, D, Cosyns, B & Vandenbossche, JL. Relation between patent foramen ovale and unexplained stroke. Am J Cardiol. 1993;71:596–598. PubMed

51. Serena, J, Segura, T, Perez-Ayuso, MJ, Bassaganyas, J, Molins, A & Davalos, A. The need to quantify right-to-left shunt in acute ischemic stroke: a case-control study. Stroke. 1998;29:1322–1328. PubMed

52. Bridges, ND, Hellenbrand, W, Latson, L, Filiano, J, Newburger, JW & Lock, JE. Transcatheter closure of patent foramen ovale after presumed paradoxical embolism. Circulation. 1992;86:1902–1908. PubMed

53. Homma, S, Sacco, RL, Di Tullio, MR, Sciacca, RR & Mohr, JP. Effect of medical treatment in stroke patients with patent foramen ovale: patent foramen ovale in Cryptogenic Stroke Study. Circulation. 2002;105:2625–2631. PubMed

54. Steiner, MM, Di Tullio, MR & Rundek, T, et al. Patent foramen ovale size and embolic brain imaging findings among patients with ischemic stroke. Stroke. 1998;29:944–948. PubMed

55. Schuchlenz, HW, Weihs, W, Horner, S & Quehenberger, F. The association between the diameter of a patent foramen ovale and the risk of embolic cerebrovascular events. Am J Med. 2000;109:456–462. PubMed

56. Schuchlenz, HW, Saurer, G, Weihs, W & Rehak, P. Persisting eustachian valve in adults: relation to patent foramen ovale and cerebrovascular events. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2004;17:231–233. PubMed

57. Langholz, D, Louie, EK, Konstadt, SN, Rao, TL & Scanlon, PJ. Transesophageal echocardiographic demonstration of distinct mechanisms for right to left shunting across a patent foramen ovale in the absence of pulmonary hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;18:1112–1117. PubMed

58. Lapostolle, F, Borron, SW, Surget, V, Sordelet, D, Lapandry, C & Adnet, F. Stroke associated with pulmonary embolism after air travel. Neurology. 2003;60:1983–1985. PubMed

59. Kasper, W, Geibel, A, Tiede, N & Just, H. Patent foramen ovale in patients with haemodynamically significant pulmonary embolism. Lancet. 1992;340:561–564. PubMed

60. Bansal, RC, Marsa, RJ, Holland, D, Beehler, C & Gold, PM. Severe hypoxemia due to shunting through a patent foramen ovale: a correctable complication of right ventricular infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1985;5:188–192. PubMed

61. Harpaz, D, Motro, M, Kaplinsky, E & Vered, Z. Right-to-left shunt through a patent foramen ovale caused by severe tricuspid regurgitation detected with color Doppler echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1992;5:77–80. PubMed

62. Shapiro, GC, Leibowitz, DW, Oz, MC, Weslow, RG, Di Tullio, MR & Homma, S. Diagnosis of patent foramen ovale with transesophageal echocardiography in a patient supported with a left ventricular assist device. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1995;14:594–597. PubMed

63. Siostrzonek, P, Lang, W & Zangeneh, M, et al. Significance of left-sided heart disease for the detection of patent foramen ovale by transesophageal contrast echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992;19:1192–1196. PubMed

64. Stollberger, C, Slany, J, Schuster, I, Leitner, H, Winkler, WB & Karnik, R. The prevalence of deep venous thrombosis in patients with suspected paradoxical embolism. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:461–465. PubMed

65. Ranoux, D, Cohen, A, Cabanes, L, Amarenco, P, Bousser, MG & Mas, JL. Patent foramen ovale: is stroke due to paradoxical embolism? Stroke. 1993;24:31–34. PubMed

66. Lethen, H, Flachskampf, FA & Schneider, R, et al. Frequency of deep vein thrombosis in patients with patent foramen ovale and ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack. Am J Cardiol. 1997;80:1066–1069. PubMed

67. Cramer, SC, Rordorf, G & Maki, JH, et al. Increased pelvic vein thrombi in cryptogenic stroke: results of the Paradoxical Emboli from Large Veins in Ischemic Stroke (PELVIS) study. Stroke. 2004;35:46–50. PubMed

68. Chaturvedi, S. Coagulation abnormalities in adults with cryptogenic stroke and patent foramen ovale. J Neurol Sci. 1998;160:158–160. PubMed

69. Pezzini, A, Del, ZE & Magoni, M, et al. Inherited thrombophilic disorders in young adults with ischemic stroke and patent foramen ovale. Stroke. 2003;34:28–33. PubMed

70. Karttunen, V, Hiltunen, L, Rasi, V, Vahtera, E & Hillbom M. Factor, V Leiden and prothrombin gene mutation may predispose to paradoxical embolism in subjects with patent foramen ovale. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 2003;14:261–268. PubMed

71. Lichy, C, Reuner, KH & Buggle, F, et al. Prothrombin G20210A mutation, but not factor V Leiden, is a risk factor in patients with persistent foramen ovale and otherwise unexplained cerebral ischemia. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2003;16:83–87. PubMed

72. Meacham, RR III, Headley, AS, Bronze, MS, Lewis, JB & Rester, MM. Impending paradoxical embolism. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158:438–448. PubMed

73. Mas, JL & Zuber, M. Recurrent cerebrovascular events in patients with patent foramen ovale, atrial septal aneurysm, or both and cryptogenic stroke or transient ischemic attack. French Study Group on Patent Fora-men Ovale and Atrial Septal Aneurysm. Am Heart J. 1995;130:1083–1088. PubMed

74. Mas, JL, Arquizan, C & Lamy, C, et al. Recurrent cerebrovascular events associated with patent foramen ovale, atrial septal aneurysm, or both. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1740–1746. PubMed

75. De Castro, S, Cartoni, D & Fiorelli, M, et al. Morphological and functional characteristics of patent foramen ovale and their embolic implications. Stroke. 2000;31:2407–2413. PubMed

76. Bogousslavsky, J, Garazi, S, Jeanrenaud, X, Aebischer, N & Van Melle, G. Stroke recurrence in patients with patent foramen ovale: the Lausanne Study. Lausanne Stroke with Paradoxal Embolism Study Group. Neurology. 1996;46:1301–1305. PubMed

77. Cujec, B, Mainra, R & Johnson, DH. Prevention of recurrent cerebral ischemic events in patients with patent foramen ovale and cryptogenic strokes or transient ischemic attacks. Can J Cardiol. 1999;15:57–64. PubMed

78. Homma, S & Sacco, RL. Patent foramen ovale and stroke. Circulation. 2005;112:1063–1072. PubMed

79. Mohr, JP, Thompson, JL & Lazar, RM, et al. A comparison of warfarin and aspirin for the prevention of recurrent ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1444–1451. PubMed

80. Sacco, RL, Adams, R & Albers, G, et al. Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Council on Stroke: co-sponsored by the Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline. Stroke. 2006;37:577–617. PubMed

81. Khairy, P, O'Donnell, CP & Landzberg, MJ. Transcatheter closure versus medical therapy of patent foramen ovale and presumed paradoxical thromboemboli: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2003;139:753–760. PubMed

82. Slavin, L, Tobis, JM, Rangarajan, K, Dao, C, Krivokapich, J & Liebeskind, DS. Five-year experience with percutaneous closure of patent foramen ovale. Am J Cardiol. 2007;99:1316–1320. PubMed

83. Spies, C, Timmermanns, I, Reissmann, U, van Essen, J & Schrader, R. Patent foramen ovale closure with the Intrasept occluder: complete 6–56 months follow-up of 247 patients after presumed paradoxical embolism. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2008;71:390–395. PubMed

84. Sievert, H, Horvath, K & Zadan, E, et al. Patent foramen ovale closure in patients with transient ischemia attack/stroke. J Interv Cardiol. 2001;14:261–266. PubMed

85. Luermans, JG, Post, MC & Schrader, R, et al. Outcome after percutaneous closure of a patent foramen ovale using the Intrasepttrade mark device: a multi-centre study. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2008;71(6):822–828. PubMed

86. Post, MC, Luermans, JG, Plokker, HW & Budts, W. Patent foramen ovale and migraine. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2007;69:9–14. PubMed

87. Morandi, E, Anzola, GP, Casilli, F & Onorato, E: Silent brain embolism during transcatheter closure of patent foramen ovale: a transcranial Doppler study. Neurol Sci. 2006;27:328–331. PubMed

88. Dorenbeck, U, Simon, B & Skowasch, D, et al. Cerebral embolism with interventional closure of symptomatic patent foramen ovale: an MRI-based study using diffusion-weighted imaging. Eur J Neurol. 2007;14:451–454. PubMed

89. Windecker, S, Wahl, A & Nedeltchev, K, et al. Comparison of medical treatment with percutaneous closure of patent foramen ovale in patients with cryptogenic stroke. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44:750–758. PubMed

90. Devuyst, G, Bogousslavsky, J & Ruchat, P, et al. Prognosis after stroke followed by surgical closure of patent foramen ovale: a prospective follow-up study with brain MRI and simultaneous transesophageal and transcranial Doppler ultrasound. Neurology. 1996;47:1162–1166. PubMed

91. Homma, S, Di Tullio, MR, Sacco, RL, Sciacca, RR, Smith, C & Mohr, JP. Surgical closure of patent foramen ovale in cryptogenic stroke patients. Stroke. 1997;28:2376–2381. PubMed

92. Giroud, M, Tatou, E & Steinmetz, E, et al. The interest of surgical closure of patent foramen ovale after stroke: a preliminary open study of 8 cases. Neurol Res. 1998;20:297–301. PubMed

93. Dearani, JA, Ugurlu, BS & Danielson, GK, et al. Surgical patent foramen ovale closure for prevention of paradoxical embolism-related cerebrovascular ischemic events. Circulation. 1999;100:II171–II175.

94. Deeik, RK, Thomas, RM, Sakiyalak, P, Botkin, S, Blakeman, B & Bakhos, M. Minimal access closure of patent foramen ovale: is it also recommended for patients with paradoxical emboli? Ann Thorac Surg. 2002;74:S1326–S1329. PubMed

95. Sievert, H, Fischer, E, Heinisch, C, Majunke, N, Roemer, A & Wunderlich, N. Transcatheter closure of patent foramen ovale without an implant: initial clinical experience. Circulation. 2007;116:1701–1706. PubMed

96. Mullen, MJ, Hildick-Smith, D & De Giovanni, JV, et al. BioSTAR Evaluation Study (BEST): a prospective, multicenter, phase I clinical trial to evaluate the feasibility, efficacy, and safety of the BioSTAR bioabsorbable septal repair implant for the closure of atrial-level shunts. Circulation. 2006;114:1962–1967. PubMed

Chapter 17 – Ventricular Arrythmias

1. Bowler, JV & Hachinski, V. Vascular cognitive impairment: a new approach to vascular dementia. Baillières Clin Neurol. 1995;4:357–376.

2. Moorhouse, P & Rockwood, K. Vascular cognitive impairment: current concepts and clinical developments. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7:246–255. PubMed

3. Hachinski, V. Preventable senility: a call for action against the vascular dementias. Lancet. 1992;340:645–648. PubMed

4. The Neuropathology Group of the Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study (MRC CFAS). Pathological correlates of late-onset dementia in a multicentre, community-based population in England and Wales. Lancet. 2001;357:169–175. PubMed

5. Roman, GC. Stroke, cognitive decline and vascular dementia: the silent epidemic of the 21st century. Neuroepidemiology. 2003;22:161–164. PubMed

6. Cechetto, DF, Hachinski, V & Whitehead, SN. Vascular risk factors and Alzheimer's disease. Expert Rev Neurother. 2008;8:743–750. PubMed

7. Schneider, JA, Arvanitakis, Z, Bang, W & Bennett, DA. Mixed brain pathologies account for most dementia cases in community-dwelling older persons. Neurology. 2007;69:2197–2204. PubMed

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48. Pantoni, L. Leukoaraiosis: from an ancient term to an actual marker of poor prognosis. Stroke. 2008;39:1401–1403. PubMed

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85. Kavirajan, H & Schneider, LS. Efficacy and adverse effects of cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine in vascular dementia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6:782–792. PubMed

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Chapter 18 – Valvular Heart Disease

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