Illustrative Examples of Recent Journal and Other Articles

Action research

Example 1: Linked action research projects in a higher education setting

George, N.A., Craven, M., Williams-Myers, C. and Bonnick, P. (2003) Using Action Research to Enhance Teaching and Learning at the University of Technology, Jamaica. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 28, 239-250.

A project aimed at exploring how action research could be used as a vehicle for enhancing the quality of the teaching/learning process. Following a series of orientation sessions and the development of a handbook for project teams, five action research projects focused on using a student-centred approach in traditionally teacher-centred courses. At the end of the project cycle, results indicated that students became more independent learners and instructors had learned much about student-centred classroom strategies

Example 2: Action research in a Doctoral thesis – an autoethnography

Humphrey, C. (2007) Insider-outsider: Activating the hyphen. Action Research, 5, 11-26.

Based on a doctoral thesis about the rise of self-organized groups for women, black people, disabled people and lesbians and gay men within trade unions in Britain. The author’s reflexivity as a researcher hinged upon her capacity to recognize her new position as an insider-outsider in relation to the university, the union and each of the self-organized groups, whilst the fertility of the project hinged upon her capacity to activate the hyphen by journeying between different life-worlds. This article explores the personal, professional and political dilemmas in becoming an insider-outsider with a view to assisting future generations of action researchers.

Example 3: A participatory action research stiudy using both qualitative and quantitative data analysis

Löfman, P., Pietila, A-M, and Häggman-Laitila, A. (2006) Self-evaluation and peer review – an example of action research in promoting self-determination of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Nursing and Healthcare of Chronic Illness. 16, 84–94.

A participatory action research study. Self-evaluation and peer review of nurses were used and compared. Data were collected using a self-evaluation instrument with permanent nursing staff, then analysed through quantitative methods. For peer review, the data were gathered through focus groups using a tool similar to the one used for self-evaluation. The participants included many of the same nurses as in self-evaluation. The data from the focus groups were analysed using qualitative content analysis. Self-evaluation and peer review were found to be complementary and to support one another, especially since nurses were found to be more critical in their self-evaluations than in peer review.

Example 4: A pilot mixed method evaluation using an action research approach

Richardson, L. and Reid, C. (2006) I've lost my husband, my house and I need a new knee? Why should I smile?: Action research evaluation of a group cognitive behavioural therapy program for older adults with depression. Clinical Psychologist, 10, 60-66.

An action research approach to developing and evaluating a group cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) program for older adults experiencing depression. This approach allowed the development of a novel program and for each component of the program to be evaluated and modified in an iterative, developmental fashion, which was seen as a particularly important, ethically responsive feature when working with vulnerable populations. A mixed methods data design was used to triangulate multiple and repeated quantitative and qualitative measures. The outcomes from the pilot study is discussed in the context of a methodology that uniquely facilitates microanalytic research while maintaining therapeutic accountability, making replication and program accountability available to all clinicians.

Example 5 (methodological): A plea for a greater degree of reflection on the practice of action research; and proposals for how to accomplish this

Badham, R.J. and Sense, A.J. (2006) Spiralling Up or Spinning Out: A Guide for Reflecting on Action Research Practice. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 9, 367–377.

I01259TROn03airtc.06iye1gh046rl0iona-0n8r5ra0a d0t5&Dli.B/ Action research involves a commitment to addressing both the practical problems of clients as well as the interests of researchers in developing generalized understandings of processes. A theoretical ‘action research spiral’ model is offered to guide reflection on this dual focus of action research. While theoretically exploring and highlighting the tensions and dilemmas created by this dual focus, the paper argues for a greater degree of reflection on action research practice and uses vignettes from action research cases to illustrate those reflective processes.

Example 6 (methodological): The benefits and drawbacks of participatory action research

Bennett, M. (2004) A Review of the Literature on the Benefits and Drawbacks of Participatory Action Research. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 1, 19-32.

A review of Participatory Action Research as a methodology. The paper maps its origins, and discusses the benefits and challenges that have been identified by other researchers in utilizing this approach. Discussed in the context of research on and with Aboriginal communities but generally relevant

Example 7 (methodological): Proposals for improvements to action research practice

Blichfeldt, B.S. and Andersen, J.R. (2006) Creating a Wider Audience for Action Research: Learning from Case-Study Research. Journal of Research Practice, 2, 1, Article D2.

Discussion of the similarities and differences between action research and case-study research. The paper also highlights some of the criticisms and challenges action researchers face. It suggests ways in which action researchers may enhance action research by increasing the transparency of their research processes, declaring the intellectual frameworks brought into action research projects, discussing transferability of findings, and defining accumulation of results. It suggests that action researchers could change the ways in which action research results are reported to increase their reach among a wider audience.

Example 8 (methodological): Advantages and disadvantages of multiple site action research case studies

Pereira, M.D. and Vallance, R. (2006) Multiple site action research case studies: Practical and theoretical benefits and challenges. Issues In Educational Research, 16, 67-79.

Focusses on the practical benefits and challenges, as well as the theoretical advantages and disadvantages, of multiple site action research case studies, and the means used to overcome the challenges that arose during the course of the case studies. Discussed in the context of a curriculum initiative project was implemented in four schools in Singapore.

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Case study

Example 1: An exploratory case study using qualitative data collection (A Master’s level thesis)

Appe, S.M. (2006) Relationships Between Artists and International Nongovernmental Organizations in Humanitarian Work. MA thesis: Master of Arts in Arts Management, University of Oregon.

A comparative case study of artists’ experiences in humanitarian work exploring the relationship of these experiences to international non-governmental organizations. Use of snowball sampling. Multimethod data collection with the main focus on in-depth interviews but also involving secondary analysis of records of NGOs, and archival information posted on websites documenting past projects and experiences.

Example 2: A management oriented case study in a health care context

Balogh R. and Cook M. (2006) Achieving Magnet accreditation in the UK: a case study at Rochdale NHS Trust. Journal of Nursing Management, 14, 366–376

A case study of a successful attempt by a UK NHS Trust to acquire the American Magnet accreditation status. Use of face-to-face and telephone interviews with senior figures at the trust, field notes of meetings attended by the researchers and analysis of documents associated with the project. The principal issues associated with the transfer of Magnet to a non-US health care system were the costs incurred, the interpretation of terminology and the engagement of medical and allied health professionals.

Example 3: A multi-method case study in a single school

Ellins, J. and Porter, J. (2005) Departmental differences in attitudes to special educational needs in the secondary school. British Journal of Special Education , 32, 188-195.

A detailed case study on the attitudes of teachers in a mainstream secondary school using documents, records of pupil progress, an interview and a questionnaire using a Likert-type attitude scale and open-ended questions. The findings suggest that the teachers of the core subjects, English, mathematics and science, had less positive attitudes than their colleagues, and that pupils with special educational needs made least progress in science where teacher attitudes were the least positive.

Example 4: A legal case study (A Doctoral thesis)

Fleming, G. (2001) Rival Goals and Values in Administrative Review: A study of migration decision-making. PhD Thesis. Sydney, Aus: University of Sydney.

A case study of the operation of the Australian shystem of administrative review of legal decisions made by review tribunals in cases of decisions made about migration. Draws on political, legal and management theory. Based mainly on observation of tribunal proceedings and various types of historical documents.

Example 5: A multi-site case study in Information Science

Wilson, K.M. and Halpin, E. (2006) Convergence and professional identity in the academic library. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 38, 79—91.

Discusses the effects of operational convergence of library and computing disciplines, and the subsequent growth of a hybrid library model, upon the professional self-identity of academic library staff. Based on case study research involving Learning and Information Services (LIS) departments at four British universities including interview and focus group work with LIS staff from across the organizational structure.

Example 6: (methodological) Discussion of common misunderstandings about case study research

Flyvbjerg, B. (2006) Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research Qualitative Inquiry, 12, 219-245.

Examines these misunderstandings and corrects them. Argues that a scientific discipline without a large number of thoroughly executed case studies is a discipline without systematic production of examples, and that such a discipline is an ineffective one.

Example 7: (methodological) Issues in carrying out rigorous and effective case study research

Darke, P., Shanks, G. and Broadbent, M. (1998) Successfully completing case study research: combining rigour, relevance and pragmatism. Information Systems Journal, 8, 273-289.

Discusses issues in carrying out case studies (in the context of information systems research but of general relvance). Offers practical guidelines for the successful completion of case study research.

Example 8: (methodological) Presents a range of arguments for the wider use of case study in nursing research

Luck, L, Jackson D And Usher K. (2006) Case study: a bridge across the paradigms. Nursing Inquiry, 13, 103–109.

Argues that case study offers, as yet, under-explored and under-utilised potential as a bridge across the traditional research paradigms, with broad research application and epistemological, ontological and methodological flexibility.

Example 9: (methodological) Discusses a range of systematic techniques which can be used in comparative case analysis

Rihoux, B. (2006) Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) and Related Systematic Comparative Methods.International Sociology, 21, 679-706.

Presents recently developed systematic comparative case analysis techniques. QCA and connected methods can be considered at two levels, as a research strategy and as a set of concrete techniques. The author argues that such a strategy displays some decisive advantages in social science research and discusses advances in the application of these techniques.

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Content analysis

Example 1: Content analysis of news reports

Boots, D.P. and Heide, K.M. (2006) Parricides in the Media: A Content Analysis of Available Reports Across Cultures. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 50, 418-445.

A content analysis of news reports of parricide cases occurring worldwide. An extensive search of online databases found coverage of more than 200 cases of children killing parents reported in the news media. Data pertaining to incidents, case-related variables (e.g., weapons used, other charges), and the processing of offenders from the initial charge through conviction and sentencing are examined.

Example 2: Content analysis of news reports

Burns, R.G. and Katovich, M.A. (2003) Examining Road Rage/Aggressive Driving: Media Depiction and Prevention Suggestions. Environment And Behavior, 35, 621-636.

A study using newspaper accounts for issue identification regarding the proposed causes of road rage/aggressive driving. It was found that personal/individual factors are more often noted than environmental cues regarding the causes of road rage. In contrast to the more popular crime control approach, a nontraditional application of crime prevention through environmental design, which focuses on traffic facilitation, is offered to address violent and aggressive drivers.

Example 3: Interview based qualitative content analysis

Severinsson, E. (2003) Moral stress and burnout: Qualitative content analysis. Nursing and Health Sciences, 5, 59–66.

Describes and interprets the narrative of an Australian nurse’s experience of burnout. A qualitative content analysis was used for the text of the interview. The main findings of this study concern moral stress and burnout. Three themes were identified: shortcomings and health problems; hovering between suffering and desire; and responsibility for oneself.

Example 4: Content analysis of issues of a journal

Southern, S. (2006) Themes in Marriage and Family Counseling: A Content Analysis of The Family Journal. The Family Journal, 14, 114-122.

A content analysis of articles, book reviews, and features in this journal to determine the most frequent themes in marriage and family counseling and to detect change in themes from 1993 to 2005.

Example 5: Interview based study using Mayring’s approach

Stevens, B., Lee, S.K., Law, M.P., Yamada, J. and Canadian Neonatal Network EPIC Study Group (2007) A qualitative examination of changing practice in Canadian neonatal intensive care units. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, ISSN 1356-1294.

An exploratory descriptive design using semi-structured individual and focus group interviews was used to explore the perspectives of health care professionals on factors that influence change to policies, protocols and practices.Mayring’s qualitative content analysis approach was used to analyse the data which were then organized into categories that reflected emerging themes.

Example 6 (methodological): Mayring’s approach to qualitative content analysis

Mayring, P. (2000) Qualitative Content Analysis. Forum: Qualitative Social Research. 1, 2. (accessed at http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs-texte/2-00/2-00mayring-e.htm on Nov 19, 2007).

Describes an approach of systematic, rule guided qualitative text analysis, which tries to preserve some methodological strengths of quantitative content analysis and widen them to a concept of qualitative procedure.

Example 7 (methodological): The different traditions of content analysis

Hogenraad, R., McKenzie, D.P. and Péladeau, N. (2003) Force and Influence in Content Analysis: The Production of New Social Knowledge. Quality & Quantity, 37, 221–238.

Examines the two traditions of content analysis: the first in which one substitutes words of a text with categories, and the second in which one looks for clusters of words that may refer to a theme. The authors expound on the epistemological foundations of the two traditions of interpretation and draw from them decision rules upon which one may rely for choosing among appropriate content-analytic tactics.

Example 8 (methodological): Innovative approaches to media content analysis.

Billig, M., Deacon, D., Golding, P., König, T. and MacMillan, K. (2005) Assessment and Development of New Methods for the Analysis of Media Content. ESRC Research Methods Programme: Methods Briefing 7. Manchester: CCSR. www.ccsr.ac.uk/methods/

Short briefing paper from a project providing a critical examination of existing methodologies and a systematic analysis of new and evolving concepts and methods for the analysis of media content. Their substantive concern was with the portrayal of policy, politics, and politicians in the media, with the research designed to enable innovative approaches to media content analysis.

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Cross-sectional design

Example 1: Study using interviewer administered self-report questionnaires

Banthia, R., Moskowitz, J.T., Acree, M. & Folkman, S. (2007) Socioeconomic Differences in the Effects of Prayer on Physical Symptoms and Quality of Life. Journal of Health Psychology, 12, 249–260.

Caregivers were asked to complete measures of religiosity, prayer, physical symptoms and quality of life to investigate the extent to which religiosity is related to well-being as a function of race/ethnicity, education or income.

Example 2: Study of elementary schools and their surrounding neighborhoods

Braza, M., Shoemaker, W. and Seeley A. (2004) Neighborhood design and rates of walking and biking to elementary school in 34 California communities. American Journal of Health Promotion, 19, 128-36.

Data on how students arrived to school linked to census data on measured population density and number of intersections per street mile, and data on school size, the percentage of students receiving public welfare, and the percentage of students of various ethnicities.

Example 3: Survey of households with infants and toddlers using a national random sample

Carruth, B.R., Ziegler, P.J., Gordon, A. and Barr, S.I.(2004) Prevalence of Picky Eaters among Infants and Toddlers and Their Caregivers’ Decisions about Offering a New Food. Journal of the American Dietetic Association,104, 557-564.

Study of the prevalence of infants and toddlers who were considered picky eaters, the predictors of picky eater status and its association with energy and nutrient intakes, food group use, and the number of times that caregivers offered a new food before deciding their child disliked it.

Example 4: Anonymous, self-reporting questionnaire survey

Smith, D.R. and Leggat, P.A. (2007) Tobacco smoking habits among a complete cross-section of Australian nursing students. Nursing and Health Sciences, 9, 82–89.

A complete cross-sectional survey of tobacco smoking habits among undergraduate students at an Australian nursing school with high response rate (85%).

Example 5 (methodological): Contrasting Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Analyses

Shklovski, I., Kraut, R. and Rainie, L. (2004) The Internet and Social Participation: Contrasting Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Analyses. Journal of computer-mediated communication, 10, 1. (accessed at http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol10/issue1/index.html on 4 December 2007)

Cross-sectional analyses show high correlations between the frequency with which respondents communicate with specific family members by visits, phone calls and email. Longitudinal analyses suggest that visits drive more email communication, and phone calls drive more visits, but email drives neither phone calls nor visits.

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Delphi technique

Example 1: Delphi to elicit expert opinions

Adams, F.K. (2006) Expert elicitation and Bayesian analysis of construction contract risks: an investigation. Construction Management and Economics. 24, 81–96.

Involves the use of a group Delphi techique, and vignettes, to elicit expert opinions about the risk of encountering adverse ground conditions on construction sites.

Example 2: Delphi to explore consensus among practitioners

Hackett, S., Masson, H. and Phillips, S. (2006) Exploring Consensus in Practice with Youth Who Are Sexually Abusive: Findings from a Delphi Study of Practitioner Views in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. Child Maltreatment, 11, 146-156.

Explores current levels of consensus among practitioners about good practice in relation to youth who are sexually abusive. A three-stage Delphi procedure was used to survey the views of experienced practitioners, experienced in this field, on a range of matters relating to preferred responses to this population.

Example 3: An e-mail based Delphi

Marsden J., Dolan B. & Holt L. (2003) Nurse practitioner practice and deployment: electronic mail Delphi study. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 43, , 595–605.

This small-scale study was part of a larger project for the Department of Health relating to nurse practitioner (NP) education and practice in UK and aimed to identify the principal factors that help or hinder the development of NP roles in the National Health Service. To facilitate a rapid response, a Delphi study was undertakenusing electronic mail (e-mail) and was completed within 4 weeks. Key stakeholders in NP practice, education and research and (non-governmental) policy-making were invited to participate.

Example 4: Use of the Nominal Group Technique to elicit the views of people with intellectual disabilities on a sensitive issue

Tuffrey-Wijne I ., Bernal J., Butler G., Hollins S. & Curfs L. (2007) Using Nominal Group Technique to investigate the views of people with intellectual disabilities on end-of-life care provision. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 58, 80–89.

A study using the Nominal Group Technique as a method to elicit the views of people with intellectual disabilities on sensitive issues, in this example end-of-life care provision. The technique was shown to present an effective and acceptable methodology in enabling people with intellectual disabilities to generate their views.

Example 5 (methodological): Advice fron experienced users of the Delphi technique

Keeney S., Hasson F. , Mckenna H. (2006) Consulting the oracle: ten lessons from using the Delphi technique in nursing research. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 53, 205–212.

Provides insight into the use of the Delphi technique by outlining the authors’ personal experiences during its use over a 10-year period in a variety of applications.

Example 6 (methodological): Enhancing the Delphi process

Kennedy H.P. (2004) Enhancing Delphi research: methods and results. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 45, 504–511

Argues that the traditonal Delphi process should be enhanced by taking further steps to support or refine the findings. Without this step there is a potential threat to the applicability, or external validity, of the results. Specific approaches are considered including a follow-up narrative study to clarify the Delphi findings.

Example 7 (methodological): Using the Nominal Group Technique with young people

MacPhail, A. (2001) Nominal Group Technique: a useful method for working with young people. British Educational Research Journal, 27, 161-170.

Introduces and reflects on the appropriateness of nominal group technique (NGT) in eliciting information from young school-aged people. Explains why NGT was selected from a number of possible methods, including focus groups, brainstorming and the Delphi technique. The practicality of using NGT with young people is addressed, and some modifications to enhance NGT’s usability are noted.

Example 8 (methodological): Critique of the Delphi technique

Powell, C. (2003) The Delphi technique: myths and realities. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 41, 376–382

Outlines the key concepts and principles of the Delphi technique. Concludes that although the technique should be used with caution, it appears to be an established method of harnessing the opinions of an often diverse group of experts on practice-related problems.

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Descriptive research

Example 1: A questionnaire based descriptive study

Atack L. & Rankin J. (2002) A descriptive study of registered nurses’ experiences with web-based learning. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 40, 457–465.

Describes the experiences of registered nurses who enrolled in a web-based course from either their home or the workplace. Focuses on the results from questionnaires and is part of a larger study using a survey method and focus group interviews.

Example 2: A descriptive study based on a systematic random sample

Mian, R.M.A., Ali, M., Ferroni, P.A. and Underwood, P. (2002) The Nutritional Status of School-Aged Children in an Urban Squatter Settlement in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 1,121-123

A descriptive study based on measurement of height and body weight of a systematic random sample of of school-aged children living in an urban squatter settlement.

Example 3: An exploratory descriptive study

Smith, J. and Liles, C. (2007) Information needs before hospital discharge of myocardial infarction patients: a comparative, descriptive study. Journal of Clinical Nursing ,16, 662–671.

Explores the information needs of patients who have received treatment for a myocardial infarction before their discharge home from an acute hospital using a specially developed Patient Learning Needs Scale questionnaire.

Example 4: Interview based questionnaire study

Palese, A., Barba, M., Borghi, G., Mesaglio, M. and Brusaferro, S. (2007) Competence of Romanian nurses after their first six months in Italy: a descriptive study. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 16, 2260-2271.

Interview based questionnaire study carried out in one teaching hospital.

Example 5(methodological): Value of qualitative descriptive designs

Sandelowski, M. (2000) Whatever Happened to Qualitative Description? Research in Nursing & Health, 23, 334-340.

Suggests that the view of descriptive research as a lower level form of enquiry has influenced some researchers conducting qualitative research to claim methods they are really not using and not to claimthe method they are using: namely, qualitative description. Seeks to reclaim this type of design as very worthwhile.

Example 6 methodological): Prescriptive and descriptive approaches contrasted

Tsang, E.W.K. (1997) Organizational Learning and the Learning Organization: A Dichotomy Between Descriptive and Prescriptive Research. Human Relations, 50, 73-89.

Discusses the dichotomy between prescriptive writings on the learning organization, concerned with the question ‘How should an organization learn?’ and descriptive research on organizational learning tackling the question ‘How does an organization learn?’ Suggestions are made on how to integrate the two types of research.

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Diaries

Example 1: Repeated use of time diaries to study change

Cheng, S-L., Olsen, W., Southerton, D. and Warde, A. (2007) The changing practice of eating: evidence from UK time diaries, 1975 and 2000. The British Journal of Sociology, 58, 39-61.

Examines some central themes about change in consumption behaviour through an empirical investigation of the practice of eating. The paper analyses patterns of food consumption in the UK using time diary data from 1975 and 2000.

Example 2 :A diary study

Gavin, H. (2006) Intrusive Music: The Perception of Everyday Music Explored by Diaries. The Qualitative Report, 11, 550-565.

Describes research investigating the perception of intrusive music, that is, music heard when choice, volume, and occurrence are not under the control of the participant. Participants were directed to record diary accounts of episodes in which music was played in instances when they were not in control of the decision to play the music or any characteristic of it, and to record various items about the music, together with any effects on themselves. Includes discussion of the efficacy of the diary method in this context.

Example 3: Repeated use of daily activity-monitoring forms and questionnaires

Hopko, D.R., Armento, M.E.A., Cantu, M.S., Chambers, l.L. and Lejuez, C.W. (2003) The use of daily diaries to assess the relations among mood state, overt behavior, and reward value of activities. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 1137–1148.

The study directly tested the assumption that non-clinical mildly depressed individuals receive less response-contingent positive reinforcement than non-depressed individuals, indicated by less engagement in behaviors perceived as rewarding in terms of both immediate pleasure and potential for these behaviors to result in more distal rewards. The data were gathered using seven daily activity-monitoring forms and the same number of questionnaires over a period of a week.

Example 4: Use of diaries and questionnaires

Hrastinski, S. (2006) The Relationship between Adopting a Synchronous Medium and Participation in Online Group Work: An explorative study. Interactive Learning Environments, 14, 137–152.

Achieving student participation has been argued is one of the most important challenges in distance education. This exploratory study examines whether a synchronous communication medium, instant messaging (IM), may enable students to participate more actively in online group work. Diaries and questionnaires were used to collect data on how student participation may have been affected in the groups that adopted IM and on student use and opinions of IM when engaged in online group work.

Example 5 (methodological): Issues in the use of Activity Diaries

Crosbie, T. (2006) Using Activity Diaries: Some Methodological Lessons. Journal of Research Practice, 2, Issue 1, Article D1.

This paper discusses some of the methodological issues surrounding the use of self-administered activity diaries as a tool for capturing data on communication and travel activities. Its main concern is to highlight the lessons learnt from the use of self-administered activity diaries as a supplementary method of data collection in a recent study.

Example 6 (methodological: Use of a cost diary in cost-effectiveness research

Goossens, M.E.J.B., Rutten-van Mölken, M.P.M.H., Vlaeyen, J.W.S. and van der Linden, S.M.J.P. (2000) The cost diary: a method to measure direct and indirect costs in cost-effectiveness research. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 53, 688–695.

Yielding comprehensive medical and nonmedical resource use data is partly dependent on respondents’ recall for collecting these costing data. A patient cost diary was developed in order to estimate total resource use, expenses, and lost production due to illness and treatment. The cost diary was applied in two randomized clinical trials. The use of the diary was evaluated, studying the feasibility, the influence of the period of data collection on the results, and some aspects of validity.

Example 7 (methodological): Evaluation of the use of diaries

Johnson, J. and Bytheway, B. (2001) An evaluation of the use of diaries in a study of medication in later life. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 4, 183-204.

The paper evaluates the design and use of a diary. There is consideration of the ways in which the diary may bias a sample, cause the participants’ difficulties and generate poor data. There is also a discussion on how it may affect behaviour and on the ethical issues that are raised by commissioned diaries.

Example 8 (methodological): Using unstructured diaries

Välimäki, T., Vehviläinen-Julkunen, K. and Pietilä, A-M. (2007) Diaries as research data in a study on family caregivers of people with Alzheimer’s disease: methodological issues. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 59, 68–76.

A discussion of the use of unstructured diaries and their benefits and limitations as primary research data in a study of family caregivers of people with Alzheimer’s disease.

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Discourse and conversation analysis

Example 1: A political discourse analysis

Cloyes, K.G. (2007) Prisoners signify: a political discourse analysis of mental illness in a prison control unit. Nursing Inquiry , 14, 202–211.

This paper aims to develop a systematic method of analysis that accounts for signification as discourse-in-action, and to show how prisoners’ signification of mental illness articulates agency through and against marginalizing discourse. Political discourse analysis demonstrates how control unit prisoners with psychiatric diagnoses signify mental illness, and articulate safer identifications in the process.

Example 2: A discourse analysis of women’s accounts of depression

LaFrance, M.N. (2007) A Bitter Pill: A Discursive Analysis of Women’s Medicalized Accounts of Depression. Journal of Health Psychology, 12, 127–140.

The article explores how a biomedical understanding is drawn on and mobilized in women’s accounts oftheir depressive experiences. Participants constructed depression as a medical condition with the effect of validating their pain and legitimizing their identities. The social construction of biomedicine and stigma for marginalized forms of distress are discussed.

Example 3: A discourse analysis of scientists’ encounters with activists

Motion, J. and Doolin, B. (2007) Out of the laboratory: scientists’ discursive practices in their encounters with activists. Discourse Studies, 9, 63-85.

This article aims to understand how scientists discursively negotiate and make sense of their encounters with activists, the range of subject positions they claim, and how power is implicated in identification with the public. It shows how scientists counter emotional appeals, utilizing both scientific and public identities respectively to legitimate the epistemic and moral authority of science and to marginalize opposing activists.

Example 4: A discourse analysis based on media reports

O’Dell, L. and Brownlow, C. (2005) Media reports of links between MMR and autism: a discourse analysis. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 194–199.

This paper details an analysis of BBC reporting of the proposed links between MMR and autism. The study aimed to identify main issues arising from the media reports into the link between MMR and the development of autism, and how these contribute to common understandings about people with autism. The study employed a form of discourse analysis to discuss how the media debates represent people with autism and perceived risks from the MMR vaccination. Sources were collected from the BBC website, and comprised of both Internet pages and reports from radio programmes broadcast by the BBC.

Example 5: A conversational analysis study

Greatbatch, D., Hanlon, G., Goode, J., O’Caithain, A., Strangleman, T. and Luff, D. (2005) Telephone triage, expert systems and clinical expertise. Sociology of Health & Illness, 27 , 802–830.

A qualitative study, using conversation analysis, of the use of an expert system developed for the British telephone triage service NHS Direct.

Example 6 (methodological): Contribution to a debate on the use of discursive approaches

Griffin, C. (2007) Being dead and being there: research interviews, sharing hand cream and the preference for analysing ‘naturally occurring data’. Discourse Studies, 9, 246–269.

Discusses the origins as well as the implications of a current preference for analysing ‘naturally occurring data’, associated with discursive approaches. Reviews the assumptions associated with a preference for analysing such data and consider some of the benefits as well as the problems involved in following other research practices that involve a degree of direct engagement between the researcher and other participants.

Example 7 (methodological): Rigour in discourse analysis

Nixon A and Power C. (2007) Towards a framework for establishing rigour in a discourse analysis of midwifery professionalisation. Nursing Inquiry, 14, 71–79.

Views rigour in qualitative researcheither as using a replication perspective that argues for the maintenance of criteria of validity and reliability, or one perspective that questions the ontological and epistemological assumptions of the replicationperspective and argues for the development of criteria that reflect the assumed questionable nature of truth and reality. A framework for achieving rigour in discourse analysis is proposed to address the challenge of maintaintaining congruity between the epistemological and ontological basis of a piece of research and the actual analysis conducted or reported.

Example 8 (methodological):Possible weaknesses in discourse analysis

Reed, M. (2000) The Limits of Discourse Analysis in Organizational Analysis. Organization, 7, 524-530.

Discusses what the author sees as inherent weaknesses in traditional Foucauldian Discourse Analysis as applied to organizational practices and forms, and proposes that they can be ‘repaired’ by drawing on core ideas from critical realism.

Example 9 (methodological):Suggestions for the use of critical discourse analysis

Smith, J.L. (2007) Critical discourse analysis for nursing research. Nursing Inquiry, 14, 60–70.

Exploration of the way in which critical discourse analysis may be applied to the analysis of public debates around policy for nursing practice. The author discusses the history of the application of critical discourse analysis and provides an example of its application to the debate around the use of nurse practitioners within the Australian healthcare system.

Example 10 (methodological):

Kitzinger, C. (2007) Feminist Conversation Analysis: Research by Students at the University of York, UK. Feminism & Psychology, 17, 133–148.

Discusses the promise of conversation analysis for feminist research, followed by illustrative examples.

Example 11 (methodological):

Speer, S.A. (2007) On Recruiting Conversation Analysis for Critical Realist Purposes. Theory and Psychology ,17, 125–135.

Discusses ways in which a critical realist approach to discourse and conversation analysis might be developed.

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Documentary and Text Analysis

Example 1: Use of routinely collected data

Damiani, M., Propper, C. and Dixon, J. (2005) Mapping choice in the NHS: cross sectional study of routinely collected data. British Medical Journal, 330, 284-288.

Study seeking to identify where in England there are likely to be most constraints on choice of hospital for patients waiting longer than six months for elective care. using routinely collected data (including availability of beds, demand travel time to facilities).

Example 2: Review of the research literature

Hellesø, R. and Lorensen, M. (2005) Inter-organizational continuity of care and the electronic patient record: A concept development. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 42, 807–822.

Explores the concept of inter-organizational continuity of care and addresses the contribution, expectations and promises associated with the advent of the electronic patient record through a review of the research literature.

Example 3: Analysis of policy documents

Kulig, J.C., Thomlinson, E., Curran, F., Nahachewsky, D., Macleod, M., Stewart, N. and Pitblado, R. (2003) The Nature of Nursing Practice in Rural and Remote Canada. Final Report: Policy Analysis for The Nature of Rural and Remote Nursing Practice in Canada. (Accessed at http://ruralnursing.unbc.ca. on 10 December 2007)

Report of a documentary analysis project.

Example 4: Analysis of newspaper coverage of an issue

Slopen,N.B., Watson, A.C., Gracia, G. and Corrigan, P.W. (2007) Analysis of Newspaper Coverage of Mental Illness. Journal of Health Communication, 12, 3-15.

Examines newspaper coverage of mental illness in children and adults coding for type of article; types of disorders named or described; themes related to crime, attributions of the disorder, treatments, and critiques of the mental health system; and elements of responsible journalism, including inclusion of perspectives from mental health experts, statistics related to mental illness, referrals to additional sources of information, and avoidance of slang terminology.

Example 5: Analysis of educational documents

Wei, B. and Thomas, G.P. (2006) An Examination of the Change of the Junior Secondary School Chemistry Curriculum in the P. R. China: In the View of Scientific Literacy. Research in Science Education, 36, 403-418.

Use of documentary analysis with data collected from various versions of teaching syllabi, textbooks, and teachers’ reference books published during the period from 1978 to 2001.

Example 6 (methodological): Issues in accessing a large privately run depository of documents

Lee, K., Gilmore, A.B. and Collin, J. (2004) Looking inside the tobacco industry: revealing insights from the Guildford Depository. Addiction, 99, 394–397.

Isues in the access to and analysis of approximately 8 million pages of documents of British American Tobacco, housed in a depository in Guildford, UK and run by the company itself.

Example 7 (methodological): Incorporating documents in qualitative research.

Miller, F.A. and Alvarado, K. (2005) Incorporating Documents Into Qualitative Nursing Research. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 37, 348-353.

Presents an overview of how documents can be incorporated as key sources of data in qualitative nursing research. The discussion includes the nature of documents, distinctive dimensions of any research with documents, how documents might be analyzed, a framework for considering the spectrum of available approaches, and examples of their use.

Example 8 (methodological): A new method of computerized content analysis of documents

Hopkins, D. and King, G. (2007) Extracting Systematic Social Science Meaning from Text. Unpublished manuscript available at http://gking.harvard.edu/files/words.pdf (accessed 10 December 2007).

Describes a new method of computerized content analysis using a small subset of documents hand coded into investigator-chosen categories to give accurate estimates of the proportion of text documents in each category in a larger population. The hand coded subset need not be a random sample. The approach is demonstrated by tracking the daily opinions of millions of people about candidates for the 2008 presidential nominations in online blogs, databases of movie reviews and university web sites. Easy-to-use software is offered to implement the methods described.

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Empowerment research

Example 1: Description of an empowerment focused project

Wilson, N., Minkler, M., Dasho, S., Wallerstein, N. and Martin, A.C. (2006) Getting to Social Action: The Youth Empowerment Strategies (YES!) Project. Health Promotion Practice, 7, 1-9.

Describes the social action component of a project designed to promote problem-solving skills, social action, and civic participation among underserved elementary and middle school youth. The focus is on how the nature of the projects themselves played a key role in determining the likelihood of experiencing success.

Example 2: Structured questionnaire study

Cheung, Y.W., Mok, B-H. And Cheung, T.S. (2005) Personal Empowerment and Life Satisfaction among Self-Help Group Members in Hong Kong. Small Group Research, 36, 354-377.

Use of a structured questionnaire in a group setting. Findings support a significant and positive relationship between personal empowerment and life satisfaction and show that there are sociodemographic differences in the effect of the former on the latter.

Example 3: A cross-cultural study using the critical incident technique

Bradbury-Jones C. , Irvine F. and Sambrook S. (2007) Empowerment of nursing students in the United Kingdom and Japan: a cross-cultural study. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 59, 379–387.

A cross-cultural, comparative study using the critical incident technique with a convenience sample from students in two schools of nursing in Japan and the United Kingdom.

Example 4: Multi-method evaluation

Itzhaky, H. and and Dekel, R. (2006) Community Intervention with Jewish Israeli Mothers in Times of Terror. British Journal of Social Work (BJSW Advance Access published online on December 22, 2006 British Journal of Social Work, accessed 11 Dec 2007)

Evaluation using both qualitative and quantitative methods of a community programme designed for Jewish Israeli mothers who have been exposed to terrorism, aiming to empower the women, increase their sense of belonging to the community, and reduce stress symptoms.

Example 5 (methodological): Empowerment possibilities of fieldwork

Ansell, N. (2001) Producing Knowledge about ‘Third World Women’: the Politics of Fieldwork in a Zimbabwean Secondary School. Ethics, Place and Environment, 4, 101–116.

Focusing on three aspects of the research process (the researcher’s presence in the field, the research topic and the choice of methods), the paper uses examples from the author’s own fieldwork to debate whether it is possible to shape fieldwork such that the knowledges created and consumed in the field by the researched serve to destabilise dominant discourses of race, gender and age.

Example 6 (methodological): Critique of Emancipatory Research Methodology

Danieli, A. and Woodhams, C. (2005) Emancipatory Research Methodology and Disability: A Critique. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8, 281–296.

The paper argues that the advocacy of participatory and emancipatory research can be criticised on several grounds including problems of internal inconsistency and contradiction, an overly selective use of the works of feminist researchers and that research using such an approach could constitute an exercise of power that potentially marginalises some voices and potentially oppresses some disabled people and researchers.

Example 7 (methodological): Contribution to the field of child health

rwin, L.G. (2006) The potential contribution of emancipatory research methodologies to the field of child health. Nursing Inquiry, 13, 94–102.

Explores whether emancipatory research methodologies have application within the context of research with children and concludes that the application of aspects of these approaches presents possibilities for contributing significantly to knowledge development for the nursing of children.

Example 8 (methodological): Participatory research as a route to empowerment

Titterton, M. and Smart, H. (2006) Can participatory research be a route to empowerment? A case study of a disadvantaged Scottish community. Community Development Journal. (Community Development Journal Advance Access published September 5, 2006; accessed 11 December 2007)

This paper considers the potential of participatory research for empowering disadvantaged communities and providing a route for overcoming social exclusion. Problems of definition and key challenges for undertaking participatory research are reviewed based upon work undertaken in a deprived community in Scotland.

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Ethnographic studies

Example 1: An autoethnography

Evans, K.D. (2007) Welcome to Ruth's World: An Autoethnography Concerning the Interview of an Elderly Woman. Qualitative Inquiry, 13, 282-291.

Autoethnographic research focussing on the role of the researcher and the importance of each participant and their unique contribution to the research project. This autoethnography deals with the reflexive nature of conducting ethnography with an elderly woman in an assisted living facility.

Example 2: Use of critical ethnographic methods

Hunter, C. (2007) On the outskirts of education: the liminal space of rural teenpregnancy. Ethnography and Education, 2, 75-92.

Attempts to understand how pregnant and mothering teens in rural communities navigate their education and how they perceive themselves within the overall institutional setting of the school using the methods of critical ethnography.

Example 3: Ethnographic study of the underground economy of a professional sport

Sugden, J. (2007) Inside the Grafters’ Game: An Ethnographic Examination of Football’s Underground Economy. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 31, 242-258.

An insider account of some of the key features of football’s black market, with a particular emphasis on ticket touting (scalping), fakery, forgery, and the murky independent travel business, providing a window into the deviant occupational subculture, lives, and lifestyles of the “grafters” - those characters who inhabit and make their living in this underground world. It concludes by locating the “grafters’ game” in the wider context of the post-1980s urban-industrial landscape of Britain and theorizes the subculture in terms of classical and contemporary theories of deviance.

Example 4: An ethnographic study of a free-standing birth centre where childbirth discourses attempting to inscribe their orthodoxies on staff and women users encountered stern and persistent resistance

Walsh, D.J. (2007) A birth centre’s encounters with discourses of childbirth:how resistance led to innovation. Sociology of Health & Illness, 29, 216–232.

An ethnographic study of a free-standing birth centre which actualises a number of contrasting ways of ‘being’ and ‘doing’ that appear to serve the interests of staff and women well. In particular, ‘nomadic’ midwifery practice and a ‘care as gift’ orientation challenges the biomedical model that defines the parameters of normal and the ‘vigil of care’ discourse that regulates the professional/patient relationship. It is claimed that birth centres may encourage novel and eclectic ways of providing childbirth care.

Example 5 (methodological): Includes discussion of the nature of ehnographic data and authority, and reflexivity

Allan, H.T. (2006) Using participant observation to immerse oneself in the field:The relevance and importance of ethnography for illuminating the role of emotions in nursing practice. Journal of Research in Nursing, 11, 397-407.

Discusses the role of ethnography in illuminating the role of emotions in a fertility clinic. Analyses the nature of the data in ethnography, the relationship between participant observation and interviews, and the experience of researcher reflexivity and ethnographic authority in ethnography

Example 6 (methodological): Discussion of the possibilites and implications of the digital age for ethnographic and other qualitative data collection

Coffey, A., Dicks,B., Mason, B., Renold, E., Soyinka, B. and Williams, M. (2005) Ethnography for the digital age. ESRC Research Methods Programme: Methods Briefing 8. Manchester: CCSR. www.ccsr.ac.uk/methods/

Briefing paper from a project developing an integrated hypermedia environment for qualitative data collection, analysis and authoring. Explores some of the possibilities and problems of integrating different data types, in particular textual and visual data, and to test the opportunities afforded by digital technologies – for information management and retrieval, data analysis and the representation of qualitative research.

Example 7 (methodological): Possible approaches to ethnography not calling for lengthy fieldwork

Jeffrey, B. and Troman, G. (2004) Time for ethnography. British Educational Research Journal, 30, 535-548.

Argues that ethnography does not necessarily require a lengthy and sustained period in the field prior to writing. The authors suggest that there are different forms of ethnographic research time, each with specific features, and drawing on their experience of ethnographic research they exemplify them. They suggest strategies for developing this type of research in contemporary circumstances.

Example 8 (methodological): Ethnographic research in a familiar environment

Edvardsson D. and Street A. (2007) Sense or no-sense: The nurse as embodied ethnographer International Journal of Nursing Practice, 13, 24–32.

This article draws on experiences from a fieldwork study of palliative and aged care environments to show how a deliberate use of the senses can enhance the richness of nursing research and open up new avenues for investigation. Examples from a reflexive fieldwork journal are presented to demonstrate how sensate experiences was used in a reflexive process that led into areas that otherwise might have remained unexplored. The authors argue that the interplay between sensate experiences and analytical logic can bring the background to the foreground and provide new ways of making the familiar unfamiliar.

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Evaluation research

Example 1: A simple pilot evaluation from the field of special needs evaluation

Dart, G. (2006) ‘My eyes went wide open’ – an evaluation of the special needs education awareness course at Molepolole College of Education, Botswana. British Journal of Special Education, 33, 130-138.

A pilot evaluation of a course which seeks to provide students with a wide range of skills and knowledge to help them identify and support pupils with a variety of special needs. Reports student views and includes feedback from staff at schools who were involved with supervising the students as they did their special education assignments while on teaching practice.

Example 2: A process evaluation of a group programme

Heinz, L.C. and Grant, P.R. (2003) A process evaluation of a parenting group for parents with intellectual disabilities. Evaluation and Program Planning, 26, 263–274.

Evaluation of a participant driven group programme focused on group learning. Prior to the evaluation, a brief evaluability assessment showed that the major service components of the program were providing a supportive and comfortable environment, teaching parenting skills, and crisis management. The evaluation was conducted using a qualitative, participant observation methodology, facilitator debriefing forms and a small group interview with some of the parents.

Example 3: A sophisticated cost-effectiveness evaluation

Kahn, J.G., Marseille, E. and Auvert, B. (2006) Cost-effectiveness of male circumcision for HIV prevention in a South African setting. PLoS Med 3(12): e517. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030517 (Accessed 21 December 2007)

Presents the first cost-effectiveness analysis of the use of male circumcision (MC) as an intervention to reduce the spread of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa. Conclusions were that in these settings adult MC is likely to be a cost-effective HIV prevention strategy, even when it has a low coverage. It generates large net savings after adjustment for averted HIV medical costs.

Example 4: A multi-method evaluation of an innovative service

Leonard S. (2004) The development and evaluation of a telepsychiatry service for prisoners. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 11, 461–468.

Telepsychiatry is one strategy to improve the accessibility and quality of mentalhealth care in the prison setting. The researcher compared the inter-rater reliability between two raters interviewing 80 participants in an observer/interviewer split configuration in telepsychiatry and same room settings using the Comprehensive Psychopathology Rating Scale. Prisoners and prison staff also took part in semi-structured interviews which focused on their satisfaction and acceptability of the telepsychiatry service. A cost comparison of the telepsychiatry service with the existing visiting service was conducted.

Moore, M. and Wade, B. (2003) Bookstart: a qualitative evaluation. Educational Review, 55, 3-13.

Bookstart is an early intervention strategy to develop the foundations of literacy in children’s early years. Existing research, over the past ten years, was quantitative in nature. The data presented here are qualitative and represent the views of professionals engaged in a Bookstart project in one borough. Both qualitative evidence and quantitative data point to the effectiveness of this intervention strategy.

Example 6 (methodological): How to design evaluations uder non-ideal situations

Bamberger, M., Rugh, J., Church, M. and Fort, L. (2004) Shoestring Evaluation: Designing Impact Evaluations under Budget, Time and Data Constraints. American Journal of Evaluation, 25, 5–37.

Discusses two common scenarios in which evaluators must conduct impact evaluations when working under budget, time, or data constraints. Under the first scenario the evaluator is not called in until the project is already well advanced, and there is a tight deadline for completing the evaluation, frequently combined with a limited budget and without access to baseline data. Under the second scenario the evaluator is called in early, but for budget, political, or methodological reasons it is not possible to collect baseline data on a control group and sometimes not even on the project population. “Shoestring Evaluation” seeks to provide tools for ensuring the highest quality evaluation possible under these constraints

Example 7 (methodological): The issues arising from the active and political nature of evaluation research

Barton, A. (2002) Evaluation research as passive and apolitical? Some reflections from the field. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 5, 371-378.

A reflexive article focusing on some of the consequences and problems that emerge when researchers undertaking evaluations become involved in the consequences of their work.

Example 8 (methodological): Ethical Issues in Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

Pinkerton, S.D., Johnson-Masotti, A. P., Derse, A. and Layde, P.M. (2002) Ethical Issues in Cost-Effectiveness Analysis. Evaluation and Program Planning, 25, 71-83.

Reviews the philosophical and theoretical foundations of cost-effectiveness analysis and describes some of the ethical assumptions and implications that are embedded in, and result from, the use of this technique. Considers how the social and political contexts of health-related decisions affects the usefulness of the results from cost-effectiveness analysis.

Example 9: (methodological): Practical advice for novice evaluators

Robinson, R. (2003) Evaluating Natural Heritage Based Development: Advice For Leader+ Coordinators, Project Managers And Local Action Groups (LAGs) Inverness, Scotland: Scottish Natural Heritage. Available at www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/news/adviceonevaluation.pdf accessed 3 January 2008.

A short, very practical, publication which provides a host of sensible suggestions for all those involved with evaluation. The focus is on rural development projects but more widely applicable.

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Evidence based approaches

Example 1: Review of typical evidence based paper in a medical context

Izzo, A.A. and Di Carlo, G. (2002) St John’s wort is not effective for treating severe depression (Abstracted from: Shelton, R.C., Keller, M.V., Glenberg, A., Dunner, D.L., Hirschfeld, R., Thase, M.E., Russell, J., Lydiard R.V., et al. (2001) Effectiveness of St Johns Wort in major depression. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 1978-1986.) Evidence-based Healthcare, 6, 36.

There is considerable interest about the potential antidepressant action of St John’s wort. Shelton and colleagues show a lack of effect on patients suffering from major depression

Example 2: Evidence based study of psychosocial factors

Smith, S. (2004) Adolescent units: an evidence-based approach to quality nursing in adolescent care. European Journal of Oncology Nursing, 8, 20–29.

Twenty-seven research articles and other relevant literature are reviewed. The psychosocial factors that affect the quality of the hospital experience of the adolescent with cancer are identified to provide an evidence-based approach to quality nursing in adolescent care.

Example 3 (methodological): Pro evidence-based approaches in education

Hempenstall, K. (2006) What does evidence-based practice in education mean? Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 11, 29-38.

Argues that teaching has suffered because of its failure to adopt the results of empirical research as the major determinant of its practice and that the generally low quality of much educational research in the past has made the process of evaluating the evidence difficult, particularly for those teachers who have not the training to discriminate sound from unsound research designs. Lists sources of evidence-based practice.

Example 4 (methodological): Critique of ‘evidence based’ and ‘best-practice’

Murray, S.J., Holmes, D., Perron, A. and Rail, G. (2007) No exit? Intellectual integrity under the regime of ‘evidence’ and ‘best-practices’. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 13, 512–516.

Suggests that a the regime of ‘evidence’, coupled with corporate models of accountability and ‘best-practices’, may lead to an inexorable decline in innovation, scholarship, and actual health care. The authors position themselves against those who quietly but assiduously control the terms by which the public understands ‘integrity’ and ‘truth’. They offer a critique of these definitions and of the systemic power that is reproduced and guarded by the gatekeepers of ‘Good Science’.

Example 5 (methodological) :Review of evidence based approaches in an educational context

Oakley, A. (2002) Social Science and Evidence-based Everything: the case of education. Educational Review, 54, 277-286.

Balanced review of the background to ‘the evidence movement’, and its applicability to education

Example 6 (methodological): A theory-driven approach to systematic review

Pawson, R. (2002) Does Megan’s Law Work? A Theory-Driven Systematic Review. ESRC UK Centre for Evidence Based Policy and Practice: Working Paper 8. (www.evidencenetwork.org)

Suggests a way in which the goal of evidence based policy can be pursued in policy domains wherethe evidence base is partial, fragmented, lopsided and contested, and the goal of evidence based policy can be pursued in respect of programmes that have long, complex, diversified and locally autonomous implementation chains? The US sex offender notification and registration programme (known as Megan’s Law) forms the case study for this demonstration project.

Example 7 (methodological): Proposal to widen the evidence base

Rycroft-Malone, J. , Seers, K. , Titchen, A., Harvey, G. , Kitson, A. and Mccormack, B. (2004) What counts as evidence in evidence-based practice? Journal of Advanced Nursing, 47, 81–90.

Argues for the use of a broader evidence base in the implementation of patient-centred care. Outlines the potential contribution of four types of evidence in the delivery of care, namely research, clinical experience, patient experience and information from the local context.

Example 8 (methodological): Use of evidence-based policy in practice

Campbell, S. Benita, S., Coates, E., Davie, P. and Penn, G. (2007) Analysis for policy: evidence-based policy in practice. Government Social Research Unit, HM Treasury. (www.gsr.gov.uk)

Findings from an investigation into the use of evidence-based policy in practice based on interviews and discussion groups with policy makers from Whitehall departments, the Scottish Executive and the Welsh Assembly Government. Attempts to gauge the extent to which the use of robust, research evidence is embedded within day-to-day policy making and policy delivery, and to understand the reasons why effective use of evidence in government decision making continues to present such a challenge.

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Experiments

Example 1:Multiple baseline experiment

Agramonte, V. and Belfiore, P.J. (2002) Using Mnemonics to Increase Early Literacy Skills in Urban Kindergarten Students. Journal of Behavioral Education, 11, 181–190.

The study examined the effects of an integrated mnemonics strategy on consonant letter naming and consonant sound production on three kindergarten students at-risk for academic failure. The strategy was assessed using a multiple baseline across students design.

Example 2: A pre-experimental post test design

Glindemann, K.E. and Geller, E.S. (2003) A systematic assessment of intoxication at university parties: Effects of the environmental context. Environment and Behavior, 35 , 655-664.

Levels of intoxication among university students were assessed at two types of parties: fraternity and private (nonfraternity) parties. Participants’ blood alcohol concentration levels were assessed using hand-held breathalyzers at 19 parties (11 at fraternity houses and 8 at private residences) in a pre-experimental design study. The results support the common belief that parties hosted by fraternity groups set the occasion for the highest levels of intoxication found on college campuses.

Example 3: A field experiment in a Cinema

Hansmann,R. and Scholz, R.W. (2003) A Two-Step Informational Strategy for Reducing Littering Behavior in a Cinema. Environment And Behavior, 35 , 752-762.

A field experiment investigated the effects of a two-step informational strategy to reduce littering in a cinema. Step 1 consisted of ambiguous information and aimed at inducing high cognitive motivation for a central processing of the subsequent information. Step 2 resolved the ambiguity and presented the antilittering information. In the experimental condition, the two-step antilittering informationwas given before the film in a cinema, whereas in the control condition, no manipulation was included.

Example 4 Quasi-experimental intervention and control group design

Loughry, M., Ager, A., Flouri, E., Khamis,V., Hamid, A. and Qouta, S. (2006) The impact of structured activities among Palestinian children in a time of conflict. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1211–1218.

This study examined the impact of child-focused interventions involving structured activities, supported by provision of equipment and training of facilitators. The focus of interventions was participation in recreational, cultural and other non-formal activities supporting the development of resilience. 250 children from the West Bank and 150 children from Gaza took part in the study. Of these 400 children, 300 comprised the intervention group. Fifty children from Gaza and 50 children from the West Bank comprised the comparison group.

Example 5: A mass participation experiment

Wiseman, R. and Greening, E. (2002) The Mind Machine: A mass participation experiment into the possible existence of extra-sensory perception. British Journal of Psychology, 93, 487–499

This paper describes a mass participation experiment examining the possible existence of extra-sensory perception (ESP). During the experiment, participants were asked to complete an ESP task that involved them guessing the outcome of four random electronic coin tosses. Data were collected during a tour of shopping centres, museums, and science festivals with a total of nearly 30,000 participants with an outcome consistent with chance.

Example 6: A Quasi-experimental Study of the influence of television debates

Aalberg, T. and Jenssen, A.T. (2007) Do Television Debates in Multiparty Systems affect Viewers? A Quasi-experimental Study with First-time Voters. Scandinavian Political Studies, 30 , 115-135.

This article investigates whether winning or losing panel debates matters in that it influences important attitudes among the electorate. Based on a quasi-experimental design prior to the 2001 Norwegian parliamentary election, this study finds that the outcome of the television debates does matter.

Example 7 (methodological): Problems with experimental designs

Kember, D. (2003) To Control or Not to Control: the question of whether experimental designs are appropriate for evaluating teaching innovations in higher education. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 28, 89-101.

This article points out the problems with experimental designs for naturalistic studies of teaching. A genuine control is impossible. Practical difficulties in separating groups often result in contamination of designs. Educational issues are complex with many variables involved. resulting in oversimplification because they deal with only a few of the relevant factors.. As an alternative, triangulation across multi-method evaluations from several sources is recommended, with the aim of establishing evidence beyond reasonable doubt.

Example 8 (methodological): Critique of experiments in social psychology

Wallach, L. and Wallach, M.A. (2001) Experiments in Social Psychology: Science or Self-deception? Theory & Psychology, 11, 451–473. It is argued that many experiments in social psychology are pointless because they are fundamentally circular. Testing hypotheses requires operationalization; operationalization requires assumptions; and in social psychology, the necessary assumptions often already imply that the hypotheses can be confirmed.

Example 9 (methodological): Self-Selection Bias in Quasi-Experimental Evaluations

Bifulco, R. (2002) Addressing Self-Selection Bias in Quasi-Experimental Evaluations of Whole-School Reform: A Comparison of Methods. Evaluation Review, 26 , 545-572.

The article discusses potential sources of self-selection bias in quasi-experimental evaluations of whole-school reform models and considers how individual student-level data might be used to provide valid impact estimates.

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Exploratory research

Example 1:Small-scale questionnaire and interview study

Arthur, L., Marland, H., Pill, A. and Read, T. (2006) Postgraduate Professional Development for teachers: motivational and inhibiting factors affecting the completion of awards. Journal of In-service Education, 32, 201–219.

A small-scale, exploratory study reported here on teachers’ perceptions of factors affecting their success in completing assessed work using questionnaires and interviews.

Example 2: Exploratory content analyses of codes of ethics

Bell, E. and Bryman, A. (2007) The Ethics of Management Research: An Exploratory Content Analysis. British Journal of Management, 18, 63-77.

An exploratory analysis of the content of ethics codes formulated by nine social scientific associations to identify the main ethical principles they coverand to analyse their underlying ethical tone. Drawing attention to the principle of reciprocity, the authors suggest that an ethics code could be used to formulate new ways of thinking about management research relationships.

Example 3: Exploratory cluster Randomized controlled trial

Byng, R., Jones, R., Leese, M., Hamilton, B., McCrone, P. and Craig , T. (2004) Exploratory cluster Randomized controlled trial of shared care development for long-term mental illness. British Journal of General Practice, 54, 259-266.

A study to determine the effects of Mental Health Link, a facilitation based quality improvement programme designed to improve communication between the teams and systems of care within general practice using an exploratory cluster Randomized controlled trial in urban general practices and associated community mental health teams Randomized to service development as usual or to the Mental Health Link programme. Measures included uestionnaires, service use and intervention costs.

Example 4: Exploratory interview based study

Cortese, C.G. (2007) Job satisfaction of Italian nurses: an exploratory study. Journal of Nursing Management, 15, 303–312.

The purpose of the research was to determine the factors that lead to feelingsof job satisfaction and dissatisfaction experienced by nurses operating in three Italian hospitals using a narrative interview technique.

Example 5: Exploratory multiple method case studies

Porter, J. (2005) Awareness of number in children with severe and profound learning difficulties: three exploratory case studies. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 97–101.

An exploratory study investigating how children with severe and profound learning difficulties register an awareness of small quantities and how they might use this information to inform their understanding. Based on the responses of three pupils to individualized learning contexts.

Example 6 : An exploratory survey

Reynolds, F. (2002) An exploratory survey of opportunities and barriers to creative leisure activity for people with learning disabilities. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 63–67.

A survey of the managers of residential homes in two major cities in the UK. The results of the study indicate that many residents can engagein art within either mainstream and specialist resources, other active creative occupations are not as accessible. The main barriers to creative leisure participation were considered to be expense, insufficient staff, transport problems and unwelcoming community resources/attitudes.

Example 7: Exploratory study using focus groups

Trueman, I. and Parker, J. (2006) Exploring community nurses’ perceptions of life review in palliative care: Aims and objectives. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 15, 197–207.

This exploratory study aimed to identify community nurses’ understanding of life review as a therapeutic intervention for younger people requiring palliative care, using focus group interviews with a purposive sample of community nurses responsible for delivering generic and specialist palliative care.

Example 8 (methodological): Issues in the use of diaries in exploratory multimethod research

Waddington, K. (2005) Using diaries to explore the characteristics of work-related gossip: Methodological considerations from exploratory multimethod research. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78, 221-236.

Examines the methodological considerations of diary methods, as used in exploratory multimethod research into the characteristics and function of gossip in nursing and health care organizations. It argues that diary methods offer a solution to the problems of researching the often private, unseen and unheard worlds of gossip in organizations. It is also argued that diary methods alone are insufficient, and that eclectic, multimethod research designs are necessary in order to manage the challenges associated with capturing and preserving the elusive nature of gossip.

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Feminist research

Example 1: Discontents of working ultraorthodox Jewish women

Blumen, O. (2002) Criss-crossing Boundaries: Ultraorthodox Jewish women go to work. Gender, Place and Culture, 9, 133–151.

In the ultraorthodox Jewish community married women are often responsible for both homemaking and breadwinning. This study examines the ‘going to work’ of these Israeli wives as an encompassing operation of two directions—the going to and the coming from work. In-depth interviews with 55 married women holding out-of-community jobs that increase their exposure to modern norms revealed discontent regarding domestic help and the financial contribution of their husbands. Such expressionsof discontent, associated with the ‘coming from work,’ are suggestive of private resistance and the modification of personal values.

Example 2: A review paper

Bringer, J.D., Brackenridge, C.H. and Johnston, L.H. (2001) The Name of the Game: A Review of Sexual Exploitation of Females in Sport. Current Women’s Health Reports, 1, 225–231

A paper reviewing the research evidence relevant to females victimized in sport by males.

Example 3: A discourse analytic study

Malson, H. Marshall, H. and Woollett, A. (2002) Talking of Taste: A Discourse Analytic Exploration of Young Women’s Gendered and Racialized Subjectivities in British Urban, Multicultural Contexts. Feminism & Psychology, 12, 469–490.

An analysis of interviews conducted with young Asian and white women living in urban, ‘multicultural’ areas in the UK. It explores how these young women constitute their own and others’ differently gendered, sexualized and racialized identities and subjectivities through their talk about styles of appearanceand tastes in, for example, clothing, clothing labels, hairstyles and cosmetics.

Example 4: A conversation analytic study with a focus on ethics

Guimaraes, E. (2007) I. Feminist Research Practice: Using Conversation Analysis to Explore the Researcher’s Interaction with Participants. Feminism & Psychology, 17, 149–161.

An article which focuses on the ethics of the author’s own conduct during the course of recording interactions between women and the police to whom they were reporting abuse in a women’s police station in Brazil using conversation analysis.

Example 5 (methodological): Discussion of the emancipatory function of fieldwork

Ansell, N. (2001) Producing Knowledge about ‘Third World Women’: the Politics of Fieldwork in a Zimbabwean Secondary School. Ethics, Place and Environment, 4, 101–116.

Focusing on three aspects of the research process (the researcher’s presence in the field, the research topic and the choice of methods), this paper uses examples from the author’s own fieldwork to debate whether it is possible to shape fieldwork such that the knowledges created and consumed in the field by the researched serve to destabilise dominant discourses of race, gender and age.

Example 6 (methodological): Advocacy of feminist-informed participatory action research

Corbett AM, Francis K, Chapman Y. (2007) Feminist-informed participatory action research: A methodology of choice for examining critical nursing issues. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 13, 81–88.

Participatory action research is put forward as a methodology for studies aiming to enhance service delivery. Combined with a feminist approach it is seen as a means of changing practice. This methodology embraces empowerment, self-determination and the facilitation of agreed change as central tenets that guide the research process.

Example 7 (methodological): The use of humour

Davidson, J. (2001) ‘Joking apart …’: a ‘processual’ approach to researching self-help groups. Social & Cultural Geography, 2, 163-183.

Feminist research methodologies reject the traditional insistence on detached objectivity, favouring instead a situated and empathic responsiveness to particular research contexts. In practice, however, interviewees often have a justifiable interest in maintaining a communicative distance between researcher and researched, thereby retaining a degree of control over the research process. Reflecting on the author’s own experiences the paper discusses how humour can act as an indicator and facilitator of these changing communicative distances.

Example 8 (methodological): Meeting the challenge of difference of gender consciousness

Andrews, M. (2002) Feminist Research with Non-feminist and Anti-feminist Women: Meeting the Challenge. Feminism & Psychology, 12, 55–77.

Review of strategies commonly used when difference of gender consciousness becomes apparent in a research setting: (1) reliance on the conceptof false consciousness, (2) the construction of research as a platform for ‘dialogue’culminating in the resolution of differences, (3) the redefinition of feminism, and (4) constructing gender and gender consciousness as a culturally and historically situated phenomenon. Drawing on interviews with a small group of old women,the author discusses her own struggles with these and related issues.

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Focus groups

Example 1: Social work study

Boylan, J., Braye, S. and Worley, C. (2006) Life’s a Gas? The Training Needs of Practitioners and Carers Working with Young People Misusing Volatile Substances. Social Work Education, 25, 591–607

Findings from a focus group study in England of the training needs of social workers, residential and foster carers in relation to volatile substance abuse by young people, and identifies the implications for further development of training materials and resources.

Example 2:Radiography/child protection study

Davis, M. and Reeves, P. (2006) The radiographer’s role in child protection: Comparison of radiographers perceptions by use of focus groups. Radiography, 12, 161-168

The research aims to devise a holistic picture of how diagnostic radiographers approach child protection issues and to explore how radiographers and other professionals see the role of radiographers in the chain of evidence in relation to child protection as this applies to children who present at the Imaging Department with suspected non-accidental injuries. A focus group methodology was used with focus groups being conducted in th United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland.

Example 3:Sociology/management/agriculture study

Pini, M. (2005) Farm Women: Driving Tractors And Negotiating Gender. International Journal of Sociology of Agriculture and Food, 13, 1-12.

The paper is based on a doctoral study which examined women's contributions to the Australian sugar industry undertaken in partnership with an agri-political group, CANEGROWERS, which represents the interests of the 6000 cane farming families in the Australian state of Queensland. It examines women’s on-farm roles and identities in relation to on-farm physical work. Eighty women participated in sixteen initial and follow-up focus groups of two hours' duration in two different cane growing case study sites.

Example 4: Nurse education study

Rangeley, H. and Arthurs, J. (2004) The long-term effects of undertaking a research course on clinical practice. Nurse Education in Practice, 4, 12–19.

The study aimed to examine the students’ perceptions of a course on the understanding and application of research, using both quantitative and qualitative strategies. Data were collected by postal questionnaires and two focus group interviews.

Example 5 (methodological):Use of Synchronous Online Focus Groups

Fox, M., Morris, M. and Rumsey, N. (2007) Doing Synchronous Online Focus Groups With Young People: Methodological Reflections. Qualitative Health Research, 17 , 539-547.

Based on a series of synchronous online focus groups with young people, the authors explore why this approach might be an effective way of engaging young people with appearance-related concerns in research. They discuss the process of hosting and moderating synchronous online focus groups, highlighting some of the ethical, pragmatic, and personal challenges that might face researchers using this method.

Example 6 (methodological): Use of the focus group method with troubled groups and for the discussion of high-involvement topics

Överlien, C., Aronsson, K. and Hydén, M. (2005) The Focus Group Interview as an Indepth Method? Young Women Talking About Sexuality. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8, 331–344.

Claims that the focus group method can be employed with troubled groups and for the discussion of high-involvement topics. It analyses focus groups’ discourse of high-involvement topics, such as ‘the body’, ‘relationships’, and ‘sexuality’, conducted with female adolescents aged 15–20 years at a detention home. Also argues that other methods would not have given ‘deeper’ insights and that the method is less intrusive in this setting.

Example 7 (methodological): Enhancing focus group research

Wibeck, V., Dahlgren, M.A. and Öberg, G. (2007) Learning in focus groups: an analytical dimension for enhancing focus group research. Qualitative Research, 7, 249–267.

Argues that considering the focus group in light of current research into interaction in problem-based learning tutorial groups would facilitate the deliberate exploitation of group processes in designing focus groups, staging data collection and analysing and interpreting data. One can then explore not only what the participants are talking about, but also how they are trying to understand and conceptualise the issue under discussion.

Example 8 (methodological): ‘Best practice’ in focus group research

Freeman T. (2006) ‘Best practice’ in focus group research: making sense of different views. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 56, 491–497.

Seeks to identify the broad epistemological debates which underpin conflicting statements on ‘rigour’ and ‘good practice’ in qualitative research and to relate divergences in statements of good practice in focus group design made by commentators on focus group methodology to these broader debates; hence to stimulate further reflection on the range of possible uses for focus groups in health services research.

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Grounded theory studies

Example 1: A descriptive, exploratory study using grounded theory analysis

Jacobsson A., Pihl E. , Martensson J . & Fridlund B. (2004) Emotions, the meaning of food and heart failure: a grounded theory study. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 46, 514–522.

Patients with heart failure have symptoms that can affect their food intake, including breathing difficulties, fatigue, nausea and loss of appetite. This paper reports a grounded theory study which developed a theoretical model of experiences of food and food intake among patients with heart failure. A descriptive and exploratory design, with a grounded theory analysis was used. Data were collected through interviews with patients with heart failure.

Example 2: A study from higher education

Rausch, J.L. and Hamilton, M.W. (2006) Goals and Distractions: Explanations of Early Attrition from Traditional University Freshmen.The Qualitative Report, 11, 317-334.

This grounded theory study was designed to investigate the factors that influenced the withdrawal of university students prior to the end of their first year at two Midwestern US universities. A two-hour audio-taped interview was conducted with each of the participants, and the grounded theory method was utilized to analyze the interview data. Eighteen of the twenty participants had strong high school scores, and would not have been identified as being at-risk of attrition. The grounded theory that emerged indicated that an absence of clear educational goals, as well as individual and institutional distractions, interacted to contribute to their withdrawal.

Example 3: A study combining the use of diaries and interviews

Rodham, K. and Bell, J. (2002) Work stress: an exploratory study of the practices and perceptions of female junior healthcare managers. Journal of Nursing Management, 10, 5-11.

A combination of critical incident diaries and semi-structured interviews were used with six junior healthcare managers. Data were analyzed using a grounded theory approach. The main themes to emerge were that the managers were generally unaware both of potential work stressors and of the effect of such stressors on the health and performance of themselves and their staff.

Example 4: A study of the impacts of home-based intervention programmes on families of children with autism

Trudgeon, C. and Carr, D. (2007) The Impacts of Home-Based Early Behavioural Intervention Programmes on Families of Children with Autism. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 20, 285-296.

Sixteen parents from nine different families participated in semi-structured qualitative interviews on their experiences of running a home-based Early Behavioural Intervention programme.Data were analysed using the Grounded Theory process. Analysis indicated that sources of support obtained through the programmes’ benefits offset sources of stress through the programmes’ demands.

Example 5 (methodological): Discusses the place of sensitizing concepts (background ideas that inform the research) in grounded theory

Bowen, G. A. (2006) Grounded Theory and Sensitizing Concepts. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5, 3, Article 2. 5(3). Retrieved 21 December 2007 from http://www. ualberta.ca/~iiqm/backissues/5_3/html/bowen.htm.

Although grounded theory is a qualitative research approach that uses inductive analysis as a principal technique, researchers who embrace this approach often use sensitizing concepts to guide their analysis. The author examines the relationship between sensitizing concepts and grounded theory. There are also commentaries on trustworthiness techniques, the coding process, and the constant comparative method of analysis.

Example 6 (methodological): Suggestions for enhancing the rigour of grounded theory studies

Chiovitti R.F. & Piran N. (2003) Rigour and grounded theory research. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 44, 427–435.

Discusses the practical application of grounded theory procedures as they relate to rigour. By reflecting on examples from a grounded theory research study, eight methods of research practice are proposed to ensure credibility, auditability and fittingness which are are viewed as components of rigour.

Example 7 (methodological): Prior familiarity with literature on the topic in grounded theory research

McGhee G., Marland G.R.& Atkinson J. (2007) Grounded theory research: literature reviewing and reflexivity. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 60, 334–342.

Discusses the arguments for and against the use of a substantial topic-related initial literature review in a grounded theory study are discussed, with examples. They conclude that, while a researcher who is close to the field may already be theoretically sensitized and familiar with the literature on the study topic, this should not prevent a grounded theory arising from the inductive–deductive interplay which is at the heart of this method. Reflexivity is needed to prevent prior knowledge distorting the researcher’s perceptions of the data.

Example 8 (methodological): ‘Pure’ vs ‘modified’ grounded theory

Cutcliffe J.R. (2005) Adapt or adopt: developing and transgressing the methodological boundaries of grounded theory. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 51, 421–428.

Highlights a number of areas where adaptation of Glaserian grounded theory often occurs including the differences between conceptual description and conceptual theory; beginning the study with a ‘general wonderment’ or a more defined research question, establishing the credibility of the theory and emerging vs. forcing. Suggests a distinction between ‘pure’ and ‘modified’ grounded theory.

Example 9 (methodological):Principles for theoretical sampling in grounded theory studies

Draucker, C.B., Martsolf, D.S., Ross, R. and Rusk, T.B. (2007) Theoretical Sampling and Category Development in Grounded Theory. Qualitative Health Research, 17, 1137-1148.

While researchers often indicate that they use theoretical sampling to choose new participants, to modify interview guides, or to add data sources as a study progresses, few describe how theoretical sampling is implemented in response to emergent findings. Provides a theoretical sampling guide that was developed by the authors’ research team to facilitate systematic decision making and to enhance the audit trail relative to theoretical sampling, and an example of how the guide was used.

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Internet/online research

Example 1: An online degree course

Browne, E. (2003) Conversations in Cyberspace: a study of online learning. Open Learning,18, 245-259.

Provides a summary of research that examines interaction between lecturers and learners engaged on a Masters Degree in Education delivered online. Course specific research findings are discussed and the process of researching in virtual space is evaluated.

Example 2: Online survey

Cichy, R.F., Cha, J. and Kim, S. (2007) Private Club Leaders’ Emotional Intelligence: Development and Validation of A New Measure of Emotional Intelligence. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 31, 39-55.

This study focuses on identifying the emotional intelligence (EI) of leaders in the private club industry, via an online survey assessment.

Example 3: Analysis of online discourse in a teen chatroom

Greenfield, P.M. and Subrahmanyam, K. (2003) Online discourse in a teen chatroom: New codes and new modes of coherence in a visual medium. Applied Developmental Psychology, 24, 713–738.

The article describes how participants in an online teen chatroom adapt to the unique features of chat environments to achieve conversational coherence and create a new communicative register. Analysis of an online chat transcript reveals that the visual nature of the chat medium allows participants to modify extant communication strategies and create new ones to fulfill these requirements, integrating features of oral and written discourse.

Example 4: Analysis of user queries on the web

Jansen, B.J., Spink, A. and Saracevic. T. (2000) Real life, real users, and real needs: a study and analysis of user queries on the web. Information Processing and Management, 36, 207-227.

Provides an analysis of transaction logs containing 51,473 queries posed by 18,113 users of Excite, a major Internet search service. Data are provided on sessions (eg, number of pages viewed), queries and search terms. together with a failure analysis, identifying trends among user mistakes.

Example 5 (methodological): Internet recruitment and online interviewing

Hamilton, R.J. and Bowers, B.J. (2006) Internet Recruitment and E-Mail Interviews in Qualitative Studies. Qualitative Health Research, 16 , 821-835.

Examines the theoretical and methodological aspects of Internet recruitment of participants and e-mail interviewing. Issues discuussed include sample bias, data fraud, flexibility and consistency in interviewing, elimination of the need for transcription, oral versus written communication, reliability and validity, and ethical concerns.

Example 6 (methodological): Ethics of using electronic mail discussion lists for research

Kralik, D., Warren, J. , Price, K. , Koch, T. and Pignone, G. (2005) The ethics of research using electronic mail discussion groups. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 52, 537–545.

Seeks to identify and discuss the ethical considerations that have confronted and challenged the research team when researchers facilitate conversations using private electronic mail discussion lists.

Example 7 (methodological): Online data collection

Lefever, S., Dal, M. and Matthíasdóttir, A. (2007) Online data collection in academic research: advantages and limitations. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38, 574-582.

Discusses the advantages and limitations of online data collection, with particular reference to the conduct of two qualitative studies involving upper secondary school teachers and students in Iceland. Email was used for contacting the participants to ask them to visit a designated website in order to complete the questionnaire.

Example 8 (methodological): Issues in internet research

Stewart, S. (2006) Internet research in midwifery: practical considerations and challenges. British Journal of Midwifery, 14, 527-529.

General discussion of issues

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Interviews

Example 1: Interviews of children using a projective technique

Joscelyne, T. and Holttum, S. (2006) Children’s Explanations of Aggressive Incidents at School Within an Attribution Framework. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 11, 104–110.

This study explores the types of, and links between, attributions made by children about bullying situations. Seventeen 9- and10-year-olds were interviewed at school. pupil were asked to construct two stories from their imagination using small dolls to act out their stories. Types of attributions and links between attributions were categorised using content analysis.

Example 2:Semi-structured interviews of hospital patients

Matiti, M.R. and Trorey, G. (2004) Perceptual adjustment levels: patients’ perception of their dignity in the hospital setting. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 41 , 735–744.

Dignity is an important concept which lies at the heart of nursing. Despite the statements made by various international bodies, as a concept it remains complex and under researched. This empirical study explores the concept in terms of the actual circumstances of patients in hospital through semi-structured interviews.

Example 3:Interviews with women with learning disabilities

McCarthy, M. and Millard, L. (2003) Discussing the menopause with women with learning disabilities. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 9–17.

An attempt to gain some insights into the ways in which women with learningdisabilities perceive the menopause. The main informants were women with learning disabilities themselves, but also general practitioners, staff in learning disability services and parents who still cared for their middle-aged daughters at home. Semi-structured interviews were used.

Example 4: Use of phone interviews with older adults

Oswald, F., Schilling, O., Wahl, H-W. and Ng, K.G. (2002) Trouble In Paradise? Reasons To Relocate And Objective Environmental Changes Among Well-Off Older Adults. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 22, 273-288.

Drawing from an environmental gerontology perspective that highlights the proactivity of older adults, this study regards relocation from home to home predominantly as an active and goal-directed process of person-environment regulation. Data collected by a phone interview procedure was drawn from a sample of 217 older adults who moved from home to home within a 3-year period before assessment.

Example 5 (methodological): Issues in child interviewing

Kortesluoma, R.-L., Hentinen, M. & Nikkonen, M. (2003) Conducting a qualitative child interview: methodological considerations. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 42, 434–441.

Illustrates the theoretical premises of child interviewing, as well as describing some practical methodological solutions used during interviews. Factors that influence data gathered from children and strategies for taking these factors into consideration during the interview are also described.

Example 6 (methodological): Power relationships in interviews

Kvale, S. (2006) Dominance Through Interviews and Dialogues. Qualitative Inquiry, 12, 480-500.

An understanding of qualitative research interviews as warm, caring, and empowering dialogues is questioned by highlighting power asymmetries in interview relationships. The article also points to the prevalence of dialogues as exercises of power in politics, management, and education. Recognition of power dynamics by the social construction of knowledge in interviews is sen as necessary to ascertain the objectivity and ethicality of interview research.

Example 7 (methodological): Issues in cross-cultural interviewing

Sands, R.G., Bourjolly, J. and Roer-Strier, D. (2007) Crossing Cultural Barriers in Research Interviewing. Qualitative Social Work, 6, 353–372.

This article critically examines a qualitative research interview in which cultural barriers between the interviewer and interviewee became evident and were overcome within the same interview. The discussion outlines the pre-interviewand during-interview barriers and facilitating conditions and related implications for cross-cultural qualitative research interviewing.

Example 8 (methodological): Learning to Interview

Roulston, K., deMarrais, K. and Lewis, J.B. (2003) Learning to Interview in the Social Sciences. Qualitative Inquiry, 9 , 643-668.

Investigates how novice researchers develop interview skills. Data analyzed include audiotapes and transcripts of in-depth interviews and students’ written critiques and journal reflections. Challenges faced by novice interviewers conducting in-depth interviews included unexpected participant behaviors, dealing with the consequences of the interviewers’ own actions and subjectivities, constructing and delivering questions, and handling sensitive research topics.

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Mixed/multiple methods

Example 1: Environmental planning multiple method study

White, S.S. and Boswell, M.R. (2006) Planning for Water Quality: Implementation of the NPDES Phase II Stormwater Program in California and Kansas. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 49, 141 – 160.

In the United States, the federal government is increasingly relying on local governments to implement policies that address the nation’s lingering environmental problems, but little is known about the factors that influence local level implementation of a federal mandate. This paper explores local government response to a stormwater program by investigating local conditions, perceptions of the federal program, and implementer characteristics using documents, Census figures and interview responses.

Example 2:Comparative study on social influences on fertility

Bernardi, L., Keim, S. and von der Lippe, H. (2007) Social Influences on Fertility: A Comparative Mixed Methods Study in Eastern and Western Germany. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1, 23-47.

This article uses a mixed methods design to investigate the effects of social influence on family formation in a sample of eastern and western German young adults at an early stage of their family formation. A combination of in-depth interviewing, network charts and grids and questionnaires were used.

Example 3: Multiple-method case study

Hopwood, N. (2004) Research design and methods of data collection and analysis: researching students' conceptions in a multiple-method case study. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 28, 347–353.

Three techniques were used in a multiple-method case study to explore students' conceptions of geography within a qualitative framework, employing aspects of phenomenology, ethnography and grounded theory.

Example 4: Real time multiple-method study of a disaster

Liehr, P., Mehl, M.R., Summers, L.C. and Pennebaker, J.W. (2004) Connecting With Others in the Midst of Stressful Upheaval on September 11, 2001. Applied Nursing Research, 17, 2-9.

The study was originally planned from September tenth to twelfth to assess concurrent use of three real-time data sources during a usual day. When theWorld Trade Center towers collapsed, the plan expanded to describe 24-hour blood pressure and heart rate, natural environment word use, television viewing/radio listening, and self-reported diary feelings for six undergraduate students in the midst of stressful upheaval.

Example 5 (methodological): Researchers’ views on combining quantitative and qualitative research

Bryman, A. (2006) Paradigm Peace and the Implications for Quality. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 9, 111–126.

Drawing on interviews with social researchers who employ a mixed-methods approach and on the literature, it is shown that a spirit of pragmatism with regard to combining quantitative and qualitative research prevails which encourages researchers to consider using mixed-methods research when the research question is suited to it. The author argues for a contingency approach, in which issues to do with quality are decided in relation to the nature of the study.

Example 6 (methodological):A typology of mixed methods designs

Gilbert, T. (2006) Mixed methods and mixed methodologies: The practical, the technical and the political. Journal of Research in Nursing, 11, 205–217.

A discussion of mixed-methods approaches drawing largely on the nursing literature and taking a supportive but sceptical stance to the mixed-methods approach. A new typology is proposed – the practical, the technical and the political. It is claimed that the typology enables the management of the tension between support and scepticism when reviewing mixed-method approaches.

Example 7 (methodological): The mixed-methods sequential explanatory design

Ivankova, N.V., Creswell, J.W. and Stick, S.L. (2006) Using Mixed-Methods Sequential Explanatory Design: From Theory to Practice. Field Methods, 18, 3–20.

Discussion of procedural issues related to the mixed-methods sequential explanatory design, which implies collecting and analyzing quantitative and then qualitative data in two consecutive phases within one study. Includes deciding on the priority or weight given to the quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis in the study, the sequence of the data collection and analysis, and the stage in the research process at which the quantitative and qualitative data are connected and the results integrated.

Example 8 (methodological): Strategies for mixing methods

Mason, J. (2006) Six strategies for mixing methods and linking data in social science research. Working paper, ESRC National Centre for Research Methods available at http://www.ncrm.ac.uk/research/outputs/publications/.

Review of different strategies for mixing methods and linking data.

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Narrative/biographical approaches

Example 1 :Narratives of university students with diabetes

Balfe, M. (2007) Diets and discipline: the narratives of practice of university students with type 1 diabetes. Sociology of Health & Illness, 29, 136–153.

Examines the food consumption and exercise narratives of a particular group of young adults with type 1 diabetes to see what personal, social and cultural factors influence their practices.

Example 2: Case study using narrative evaluation

Gold, J., Devins. and Johnson, A. (2003) What is the value of mentoring in a small business? Using narrative evaluation to find out. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 31, 51-62.

The paper examines the case of one small business manager and the value he gave to a mentoring intervention demonstrated by the use of narrative evaluation.

Example 3: A biographical approach to educational practice

Moen, T., Gudmundsdottir, S. and Flem, A. (2003) Inclusive practice: a biographical approach. Teaching and Teacher Education, 19, 359–370.

The article is concerned with how the ideal of inclusive practice in Norway is realized in one particular classroom. The homeroom teacher has two boys with severe behavioural problems, included in the ordinary classroom activities together with their teacher and classmates. The study focuses on one aspect of her inclusive educational practice and on how this has developed over time.

Example 4: Narratives of the life experiences of refugees

Pavlish C. (2007) Narrative inquiry into life experiences of refugee women and men. International Nursing Review, 54, 28–34.

This research examines meaningful life experiences as narrated by women and men Congolese refugees residing in a refugee camp in Rwanda. It is claimed that listening to refugee voices in narrated life experiences provides an opportunity for nongovernmental organizations to create programmes and services that pertain closely to refugees’ life experiences.

Example 5 (methodological): Use of reconstructed stories

Papadopoulos, I., Scanlon, K. and Lees, S. (2002) Reporting and Validating Research Findings Through Reconstructed Stories. Disability & Society, 17, 269–281.

Describes the use of, and reasons why reconstructed stories were used, as a method of presenting and validating the findings from the interview data with visually impaired people into the needs of visually impaired people resident in a London borough. The use of reconstructed stories is claimed as a novel, user friendly and effective method of presenting and validating qualitative research data.

Example 6 (methodological): Analysis of audiovisual data in narrative research

Rich, M. and Patashnick, J. (2002) Narrative research with audiovisual data: Video Intervention/Prevention Assessment (VIA) and NVivo. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 5, 245-261.

Video Intervention/Prevention Assessment is a qualitative research method that investigates health conditions from the patient’s perspective. It consists of visual illness narratives, video diaries made by participants of their experiences living with and managing chronic medical conditions.

Example 7 (methodological): Narrative research in practicing professions

Riessman, C.K. and Quinney, L. (2005) Narrative in Social Work: A Critical Review. Qualitative Social Work, 4, 391-412.

The article reviews definitions of narrative, criteria for ‘good’ enough narrative research, and patterns in social work journals. The evaluation uncovered few studies, in contrast to the volume of narrative research in education, nursing and other practicing professions. Three exemplars of narrative inquiry research show the knowledge for social work practice that can be produced with careful application of narrative methods.

Example 8 (methodological): Using the narrative picturing technique

Simpson, A. and Barker, P. (2007) The persistence of memory: using narrative picturing to co-operatively explore life stories in qualitative inquiry. Nursing Inquiry, 14, 35–