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Section I: Fundamentals

Section II: Industrial Psychology

Section III: Organizational Psychology

Preface xx


Section 1: FUNDAMENTALS top

CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY? 2

TopMODULE 1.1

The Importance of I-O Psychology 3
The Importance of Work in People’s Lives 3
The Concept of “Good Work” versus “Good Job” 4
How Does I-O Psychology Contribute to Society? 8
What Is I-O Psychology? 8
SIOP as a Resource 11
How This Course Can Help You 11
Knowledge About the 21st-Century Workplace 11
The Importance of Understanding the Younger Worker 14


TopMODULE 1.2

THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF I-O PSYCHOLOGY 16
The Past: A Brief History of I-O Psychology 16
1876–1930 17
1930–1964 20
The Present: Demographics of I-O Psychologists 22
Pathways to a Career in I-O Psychology: A Curious Mixture23
The Future: The Challenges to I-O Psychology in the 21st Century 24
A Personal View of the Future: Preparing for a Career in I-O Psychology 25
Education and Training 25
Getting into a Graduate Program 25


TopMODULE 1.3

MULTICULTRAL AND CROSS-CULTURAL ISSUES IN I-O PSYCHOLOGY 28
Multiculturalism 28
The Multicultural Nature of Work in the 21st Century 30
Why Should Multiculturalism Be Important to You? 32
Why Is Multiculturalism Important for I-O Psychology? 32
Some Theories of Cultural Influence 33
Hofstede’s Theory 34
Some Thoughts on Theories of Cultural Influence 36


TopMODULE 1.4

THE ORGANIZATION OF THIS BOOK 40
Themes 40
Parts 41
Resources 42


CHAPTER 2: METHODS AND STATISTICS IN I-O PSYCHOLOGY 48

TopMODULE 2.1

SCIENCE 49
What Is Science? 49
The Role of Science in Society 50
Why Do I-O Psychologists Engage in Research? 51


TopMODULE 2.2

RESEARCH 53
Research Design 53
Methods of Data Collection 55
Qualitative and Quantitative Research 55
The Importance of Context in Interpreting Research 56
Generalizability and Control in Research 57
Generalizability 57
Control 58
Ethical Behavior in I-O Psychology 59


TopMODULE 2.3

DATA ANALYSIS 62
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 62
Descriptive Statistics 62
Inferential Statistics 63
Statistical Significance 64
The Concept of Statistical Power 65
Correlation and Regression 65
The Concept of Correlation 66
The Correlation Coefficient 66
Multiple Correlation 68
Correlation and Causation 68
Meta-Analysis 69
Micro-, Macro-, and Meso-Research 71


TopMODULE 2.4

INTERPRETATION 73
Reliability 73
Test–Retest Reliability 74
Equivalent Forms Reliability 74
Internal Consistency 75
Inter-Rater Reliability 75
Validity 76
Criterion-Related Validity 77
Content-Related Validity 79
Construct-Related Validity 80
Validity and the Law: A Mixed Blessing 82


Section 2: INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY 85

CHAPTER 3 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND ASSESSMENT 86

TopMODULE 3.1

AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 87
Some Background 87
Differential Psychology, Psychometrics, and I-O Psychology 88
Identifying Individual Differences 89
Varieties of Individual Differences 89


TopMODULE 3.2

HUMAN ATTRIBUTES 93
Abilities 93
Cognitive Abilities 93
Intelligence as “g” 93
Is “g” Important at Work? 94
Is “g” as Important in Other Countries as It Is in the U.S.? 95
Can Your Level of “g” Change? 95
Cognitive Abilities beyond “g” 95
Physical, Sensory, and Psychomotor Abilities 97
Physical Abilities 97
Sensory Abilities 98
Psychomotor Abilities 99
Personality and Interests 99
Personality 99
The Five Factor Model 100
Vocational Interests 105
Additional Attributes 107
Skills 107
Knowledge 107
Experience 108
Competencies 109
Emotional Intelligence 110


TopMODULE 3.3

FOUNDATIONS OF ASSESSMENT 113
The Past and the Present of Testing 113
What Is a Test? 115
What is the Meaning of a Test Score 115
Test Users and Test Interpretation 116
What Is a Test Battery? 116
Where to Find Tests 118
Administrative Test Categories 119
Speed versus Power Tests 119
Group versus Individual Tests 119
Paper and Pencil versus Performance Tests 120
Testing and Culture 120
International Assessment Practices 123


TopMODULE 3.4

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES 125
Assessment Content versus Process 125
Assessment Procedures: Content 125
Cognitive Ability Tests 125
Knowledge Tests 127
Tests of Physical Abilities 127
Psychomotor Abilities 128
Personality 128
Practical Issues Associated with Personality Measures 129
Integrity Testing 132
Emotional Intelligence 134
Interests and Values 135
Individual Assessment 136
Interviews 137
Interview Content 137
Interview Process 139
Assessment Centers 140
Work Samples and Situational Tests 143
Work Sample Tests 143
Situational Judgment Tests 144


TopMODULE 3.5

SPECIAL TOPICS IN ASSESSMENT 148
Incremental Validity 148
Biographical Data 149
Grades and Letters of Recommendation 152
Minimum Qualifications 152
Useless Assessment Practices: Graphology and the Polygraph 153
Drug and Alcohol Testing 154
Computer and Internet Assessment 155
Who Is a Candidate? 158
Computer Adaptive Testing 158
Testing and Demographic Differences 159


CHAPTER 4 UNDERSTANDING PERFORMANCE 161

TopMODULE 4.1

A BASIC MODEL OF PERFORMANCE 162
Campbell’s Model of Job Performance 162
Criterion Deficiency and Contamination 166
A Broader View 167


TopMODULE 4.2

EXTENSIONS OF THE BASIC PERFORMANCE MODEL 169
Task Performance versus Organizational Citizenship Behavior 169
Causes and Correlates of OCB 171
Types of Performance Measures 173
Adaptive Performance 173
A Comprehensive Framework for Considering Performance: The “Great Eight” 175
The Case of Expert Performance 176
Constraints on Performance: Counterproductive Work Behaviors 178
Causes and Treatments for CWB 181
Citizenship Revisited 182


TopMODULE 4.3

JOB ANALYSIS FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES AND PRACTICES 183
The Uses of Job Analysis Information 183
A Brief History of Job Analysis 185
Types of Job Analysis 185
How Job Analysis Is Done 188

TopMODULE 4.4

JOB ANALYSIS: NEWER DEVELOPMENTS 191
Electronic Performance Monitoring as Part of a Job Analysis 191
Cognitive Task Analysis 192
The Context of Work 194
Personality-Based Job Analysis 195
A Summary of the Job Analysis Process 195
Computer-Based Job Analysis 197
O*NET 198
Competency Modeling 201


TopMODULE 4.5

JOB EVALUATION, COMPARABLE WORTH, AND THE LAW 204
Job Evaluation 204
An Example of a Job Evaluation 204
The Concept of Comparable Worth 206
Job Analysis and Employment Litigation 208
The Special Case of Overtime Pay 209


CHAPTER 5 PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT 211

TopMODULE 5.1

BASIC CONCEPTS IN PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT 212
Uses for Performance Information 212
Types of Performance Data 213
Relationships among Performance Measures 213
Hands-On Performance Measures 213
Electronic Performance Monitoring 215
Performance Management 217
Perceptions of Fairness in Performance Management 218


TopMODULE 5.2

PERFORMANCE RATING - SUBSTANCE 222
Close-Up on a Rating System 222
Theories of Performance Rating 223
Focus on Performance Ratings 224
Overall Performance Ratings 224
Trait Ratings 225
Task-Based Ratings 226
Critical Incidents Methods 226
OCB and Adaptive Performance Ratings 226
Structural Characteristics of a Performance Rating Scale 227
Rating Formats 228
Graphic Rating Scales 228
Checklists 229
Behavioral Rating 231
Employee Comparison Methods 232
A New Variation on the Paired Comparison Method: CARS 233
Concluding Thoughts on Performance Rating Formats 235


TopMODULE 5.3

PERFORMANCE RATING - PROCESS 236
Rating Sources 236
Supervisors 236
Peers 237
Self-Ratings 238
Subordinate Ratings 239
Customer and Supplier Ratings 240
360 Degree Systems 240
Rating Distortions 240
Central Tendency Error 241
Leniency–Severity Error 241
Halo Error 241
Rater Training 242
Administrative Training 242
Psychometric Training 242
Frame-of-Reference Training 243
The Reliability and Validity of Ratings 243
Reliability 243
Validity 243


TopMODULE 5.4

THE SOCIAL AND LEGAL CONTEXT OF PERFORMANCE EVALUATION 245
The Motivation to Rate 245
Goal Conflict 247
Performance Feedback 247
“Destructive” Criticism 248
360 Degree Feedback 250
Performance Evaluation and Culture 252
Performance Evaluation and the Law 253
Performance Evaluation and Protected Groups 256


CHAPTER 6 STAFFING DECISIONS 259

TopMODULE 6.1

CONCEPTUAL ISSUES IN STAFFING 260
An Introduction to the Staffing Process 260
The Impact of Staffing Practices on Firm Performance 261
Stakeholders in the Staffing Process 262
Line Managers 263
Co-workers 263
Applicants 263
Staffing from the International Perspective 264


TopMODULE 6.2

EVALUATION OF STAFFING OUTCOMES 267
Validity 267
Selection Ratios 268
Prediction Errors and Cut Scores 268
Establishing Cut Scores 270
Utility 271
Til Death Us Do Part? The Concept Of Dynamic Validities 272
Fairness 272


TopMODULE 6.3

PRACTICAL ISSUES IN STAFFING 274
A Staffing Model 274
Comprehensive Selection Systems 274
Compensatory Selection Systems 274
Combining Information 275
Statistical versus Clinical Decision Making 275
The Hurdle System of Combining Scores 276
Combining Scores by Regression (The Compensatory Approach) 277
Score Banding 278
Subgroup Norming 279
Selection versus Placement 279
Deselection 280
Number of Decisions to Be Made 281
Large Staffing Projects 281
Small Staffing Projects 283


TopMODULE 6.4

LEGAL ISSUES IN STAFFING DECISIONS 285
Charges of Employment Discrimination 285
Theories of Discrimination 286
Intentional Discrimination or Adverse Treatment 286
Unintentional Discrimination or Adverse Impact 286


CHAPTER 7 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT 292

TopMODULE 7.1

FOUNDATIONS OF TRAINING AND LEARNING 293
Training, Learning, and Performance 294
Training Needs Analysis 295
The Learning Process in Training 297
Trainee Characteristics 298
Learning and Motivational Theories Applied to Training 299
Principles of Learning 301
Learning Organizations 304


TopMODULE 7.2

CONTENT AND METHODS OF TRAINING 306
Training Methods 306
On-Site Training Methods 306
Off-Site Training Methods 308
Distance Learning and Computer-Based Training 309
Training “Critical Thinking” 310
Transfer of Training 311


TopMODULE 7.3

EVALUATING TRAINING PROGRAMS 314
Training Evaluation 314
Training Criteria 314
Utility Analysis 316
Training Evaluation Designs 317
Equal Employment Opportunity Issues in Training 319


TopMODULE 7.4

SPECIALIZED TRAINING PROGRAMS 321
Management and Leadership Development 321
Assessment Centers 321
360 Degree Feedback 322
Coaching 323
Informal Training 323
Sexual Harassment Awareness Training 325
Ethics Training 326
Cross-Cultural Training 327


Section 3: ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 331

CHAPTER 8 THE MOTIVATION TO WORK 332

TopMODULE 8.1

AN INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATION 333
The Central Position of Motivation in Psychology 333
A Brief History of Motivation Theory in I-O Psychology 334
Metaphors for Motivation 335
Person as Machine 335
Person as Godlike 336
The Meaning and Importance of Motivation in the Workplace 337
Motivation and Performance 337
Motivation and Work–Life Balance 338
Motivation and Attitudes 338
Motivation and Personality 339


Top MODULE 8.2

MOVIVATIONAL THEORIES - CLASSIC APPROACHES 341
“Person-as-Machine” Theories 341
An Internal Mechanical Theory: Maslow’s Need Theory 341
An External Mechanical Theory: Reinforcement Theory 344
“Person-as-Godlike” Theories: The Scientist Model 345
Vroom’s VIE Theory 345
Equity Theory 347


TopMODULE 8.3

MODERN APPROACHES TO WORK MOTIVATION 350
Person-as-Intentional 350
Goal Setting Theory 350
Control Theories and the Concept of Self-Regulation 354
The Concept of Self-Efficacy in Modern Motivation Theory 355
Action Theory 358
Common Theories in Modern Approaches 360
A New Motivational Topic: The Entrepreneur 360


TopMODULE 8.4

PRACTICAL ISSUES IN MOTIVATION 364
Can Motivation Be Measured? 364
Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation 364
Generational Differences and Work Motivation 367
Motivational Interventions 369
Contingent Rewards 369
Job Enrichment 370
ProMES 371


CHAPTER 9 ATTITUDES, EMOTIONS, AND WORK 376

TopMODULE 9.1

JOB SATIFACTION 377
The Experience of Emotion at Work 377
Job Satisfaction: Some History 378
The Early Period of Job Satisfaction Research 378
An Evolution 380
Antecedents and Consequences of Job Satisfaction 381
The Measurement of Job Satisfaction 384
Overall versus Facet Satisfaction 384
Satisfaction Questionnaires 386


Top MODULE 9.2

MOODS, EMOTIONS, ATTITUDES, AND BEHAVIOR 390
Is Everybody Happy? Does It Matter If They Are? 390
The Concept of “Resigned”Work Satisfaction 390
Satisfaction versus Mood versus Emotion 393
Dispositions and Affectivity 395
The Time Course of Emotional Experience 396
Genetics and Job Satisfaction 397
The Concept of Core Evaluations 398
The Concept of Commitment 400
Forms of Commitment 400
Individual Difference Variables and Commitment 401
A New Focus: Organizational Identification 403
Withdrawal Behaviors 405


Top MODULE 9.3

RELATED TOPICS 408
Job Loss 408
Telecommuting 410
Work–Family Balance 412
Work-Related Attitudes and Emotions from the Cross-Cultural Perspective 414
A Possible Connection between Motivation and Emotion 415


CHAPTER 10 STRESS AND WORKER WELL-BEING 418

TopMODULE 10.1

THE PROBLEM OF STRESS 419
Studying Workplace Stress 419
What Is a Stressor? 421
Common Stressors at Work 422
Physical/Task Stressors 422
Psychological Stressors 422
Consequences of Stress 426
Behavioral Consequences of Stress 426
Psychological Consequences of Stress 428
Physiological Consequences of Stress 429
Work Schedules 430
Shift Work 430
Flexible and Compressed Workweek Schedules 432


Top MODULE 10.2

THEORIES OF STRESS 435
Demand–Control Model 435
Person–Environment Fit Model 436
Individual Differences in Resistance to Stress 437
The Type A Behavior Pattern 438


Top MODULE 10.3

REDUCING AND MANAGING STRESS 442
Primary Prevention Strategies 442
Work and Job Design 442
Cognitive Restructuring 444
Secondary Prevention Strategies 444
Stress Management Training 444
Relaxation and Biofeedback Techniques 445
Social Support 445
Tertiary Prevention Strategies 446
Summary of Stress Intervention Strategies 447
Future Work Trends and Challenges to Stress and Stress Management 448


Top MODULE 10.4

VIOLENCE AT WORK 450
Stress and Workplace Violence 451
Levels of Violence 451
The Experiential Sequence of Violence 452
The “Typical” Violent Worker 452
Theories of Workplace Violence 453
Frustration–Aggression Hypothesis 453
The “Justice” Hypothesis 455
A Special Type of Violence: Bullying 457
What Can We Conclude about Workplace Violence? 459


CHAPTER 11 FAIRNESS AND DIVERSITY IN THE WORKPLACE 461

TopMODULE 11.1

FAIRNESS 462
The Concept of Justice 462
Justice, Fairness, and Trust 464
Approaches to Organizational Justice 466
Distributive Justice 466
Procedural Justice 468
Interactional Justice 470
Deontic Justice 471
Justice versus Injustice 471


Top MODULE 11.2

THE PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF JUSTICE PERCEPTIONS 473
Performance Evaluation 474
Applicant Perceptions of Selection Fairness 475
A Special Case of Applicant Reactions: Stereotype Threat 477
A Model of Applicant Decision Making 479
The Rejected Applicant 480
The Special Case of Affirmative Action 481
Culture and Affirmative Action Programs 484


Top MODULE 11.3

DIVERSITY 487
What Does Diversity Mean? 487
The Dynamics of Diversity 488
Diversity from the Work Group Perspective 489
Managing Diversity from the Organizational Perspective 491
Leadership and Diversity 492


CHAPTER 12 LEADERSHIP 494

Top MODULE 12.1

THE CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP 495
Some Conceptual Distinctions 495
Leader Emergence versus Leader Effectiveness 495
Leader Emergence 495
The Problem of Defining Leadership Outcomes 496
Leader versus Manager or Supervisor 497
The Blending of Managerial and Leadership Roles 498
Leader Development versus Leadership Development 500
The Motivation to Lead 501


Top MODULE 12.2

TRADITIONAL THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP 504
The Great Man and Great Woman Theories 504
The Trait Approach 505
The “Power” Approach to Leadership 506
The Behavioral Approach 506
The Ohio State University Studies 506
The University of Michigan Studies 509
The Contingency Approach 509
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory 510
House’s Path—Goal Theory 510
The Case of Social Undermining: What about the “Fickle” Leader? 511
The Consequences of Participation: The Vroom—Yetton Model 512


Top MODULE 12.3

NEW APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP 518
Leader—Member Exchange (LMX) 518
Transformational Leadership 519
The Charismatic Leader 523


TopMODULE 12.4

EMERGING TOPICS AND CHALLENGES IN LEADERSHIP RESEARCH 526
Leadership in a Changing Workplace 526
Male and Female Leaders: Are They Different? 528
The Demographics of Leadership 528
The Leadership Styles of Men and Women 529
Personality and Leadership 530
Cross-Cultural Studies of Leadership 532
Leadership in a Diverse Environment 534
Guidelines for Effective Leadership 538


CHAPTER 13 TEAMS IN ORGANIZATIONS 540

Top MODULE 13.1

TYPES OF TEAMS 541
Groups and Teams: Definitions 542
Types of Teams 542
Quality Circles 542
Project Teams 543
Production Teams 544
Virtual Teams 546


TopMODULE 13.2

A MODEL OF TEAM EFFECTIVENESS 550
Input-Process-Output Model of Team Effectiveness 550
Team Inputs 550
Team Processes 556
Team Outputs 560


Top MODULE 13.3

SPECIAL ISSUES IN TEAMS 562
Team Appraisal and Feedback 562
ProMES 563
Team Roles 563
Team Development 565
Team Training 566
Cultural Issues in Teams 567


CHAPTER 14 THE ORGANIZATION OF WORK BEHAVIOR 570

Top MODULE 14.1

THE CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS 571
Organizations and People 571
Organization as Integration 574
Theories of Organization 575
Classic Organizational Theory 575
Human Relations Theory 576
Contingency Theories 579
Systems Theory 580
Two Recent Approaches 584
Conclusions about Theories of Organizations 585


TopMODULE 14.2

SOME SOCIAL DYNAMICS OF ORGANIZATIONS 587
Climate and Culture 587
A Brief History of Climate 588
An Even Briefer History of Culture 590
An Integration of Concepts 590
A New Avenue for Exploration: Climate and Culture Strength 593
Organizational Climate and Culture from the Multicultural Perspective 595
When Cultures Clash 595
An Application of Culture and Climate: Safety 596
The Role of Leaders in Safety 597
Safety Climate and Culture 597
Unions and Organizational Behavior 599
Socialization and the Concept of Person–Organization (P–O) Fit 601
Organizational Socialization 601
Socialization from the International Perspective 607


Top MODULE 14.3

ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE 609
Organizational Change 609
Episodic Change 610
Continuous Change 611
Resistance to Change 613
Examples of Large-Scale Organizational Change Initiatives 614
Management By Objectives (MBO) 614
Matrix Organizations 614
Total Quality Management (TQM) 615
Six Sigma Systems 617
Lean Production Manufacturing 617
Mergers and Acquisitions 619
Emerging Commonalities among Organizational Interventions 619
Organizational Development 620
Examples of OD Techniques 621

Glossary G-1
References R-1
Credits C-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-12